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This paper analyses the population censuses on the Polish area, particularly, the subject of censuses and their thematic scope. the study refers to the censuses in the 19th and 20th centuries (the study closes with the 1988 census). The paper consists of three parts. The first one presents the origins of censuses and the first censuses conducted in Europe in the 18th century. This part also shows the efforts of international statistical institutions to normalise and standardise national censuses. It allowed for building international standards to make national censuses comparable. The second part shows censuses in the 19th century, and the third part discusses censuses in the 20th century. A fundamental feature of the censuses is a set of questions common to demographic and social issues. This makes it possible to carry out comparative analysis in different regional cross-sections on a secular basis. It should also be provided that census categories are not always comparable, hence various conversions and estimates are necessary. The universality of the censuses have made them a huge organizational challenge each time. The greatest effort was borne by the statistical institutions responsible, not only for conducting the censuses, but also during the compilation and publication of the data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wrought iron was a determining material in historic times. Although it was mainly used for manufacturing tools and weapons it was also applied for architectural purposes as building structural or architectural elements. In this paper the impact of material and technology of forging on the shaping and the design of wrought iron building structural and architectural elements from the time of the first known application to the 20th century in Europe is analyzed, distinguishing five main periods which are divided by four determining technological shifts in material production and consequently forging technology. Several phenomena are delighted regarding the appearance of the artifacts and the characteristics of the material, which reveal connections between technology and architectural design. The observations are validated by visual analyses of wrought iron samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of BETWEEN is the property of Between and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background and purpose: Neurology residency programmes, which were first established at the beginning of the 20th century, have become mandatory all over Europe in the last 40–50 years. The first European Training Requirements in Neurology (ETRN) were published in 2005 and first updated in 2016. This paper reports the most recent revisions of the ETRN. Methods: Members of the EAN board performed an in depth revision of the ETNR 2016‐version, which was reviewed by members of the European Board and Section of Neurology of the UEMS, the Education and Scientific Panels, the Resident and Research Fellow Section and the Board of the EAN, as well as the presidents of the 47 European National Societies. Results: The new (2022) ETRN suggest a 5‐year training subdivided in three phases: a first phase (2 years) of general neurology training, a second phase (2 years) of training in neurophysiology/neurological subspecialties and a third phase (1 year) to expand clinical training (e.g., in other neurodisciplines) or for research (path for clinical neuroscientist). The necessary theoretical and clinical competences as well as learning objectives in diagnostic tests have been updated, are newly organized in four levels and include 19 neurological subspecialties. Finally, the new ETRN require, in addition to a programme director, a team of clinician‐educators who regularly review the resident's progress. The 2022 update of the ETRN reflects emerging requirements for the practice of neurology and contributes to the international standardization of training necessary for the increasing needs of residents and specialists across Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to address the conceptual and ethical problems that arise when scholars of contemporary European history resort to the notion of collective trauma. Different historical works on the reconstruction of Europe in the second half of the 20th century have relied on the notion of trauma to grasp the evolution of the memory of violence. More specifically, however, this paper focuses on the problems that arise from defining the Spanish Civil War as a collective trauma by examining the antagonistic ways in which the traumas derived from this conflict have been embodied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the socio-spatial relations of changes in the concept of place. Since the 1970s, place has been one of the key terms of humanistic geography. Therefore, this paper reflects how the concept of place, its functions and meanings could be applied in the changing space-time and social contexts. The 'exotic' phenomenon of the American Bar which had penetrated into Europe in the first half of the 20th century can be regarded as a representative of place when it had emerged during Americanisation as a new cultural element. This article compares the interwar development of this phenomenon in two European capitals (Berlin, Prague) and analyses both differences and the common attributes of the process of forming place. Emphasis is placed not only on the localisation of the American Bar, but also on more complex historical and geographical analysis of its development and perception that were characteristic exclusively for the Central European region. Using the archive materials, the contemporary press, legislative measures and professional and memoir literature, the study confirms that the American Bar phenomenon had acquired different meanings within different contexts which had changed over time and which can be documented through the "spreading" of this phenomenon in space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A wave of privatisation is unfolding in Europe in the wake of the financial crisis, but it has yet to receive serious scholarly attention. This paper examines the case of Ireland, where an austerity strategy and European Union International Monetary Fund bailout conditionality have given impetus to the transfer of public assets to the private sector. Theoretically, the paper explains the roots of the phenomenon with reference to a reformulated concept of 'accumulation by dispossession' whose usefulness lies in emphasising the politico-economic drivers of privatisation, which have been neglected in the mainstream literature. A typology is presented that argues that accumulation by dispossession manifests itself, in practice, through four main processes: (1) private repossession of assets nationalised during the financial crisis; (2) restructuring of state-owned enterprises; (3) commodification of assets and services hitherto located outside the market; and (4) privatised stimulus through public-private partnerships. The paper's framework should be useful to conceptualise ongoing privatisation processes in other European countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Botanica Serbica is the property of University of Belgrade, Institute of Botany & Botanical Garden Jevremovac and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

While recent scholarship has emphasized the role of the colonial experience in the development of the idea of Europe and European integration, notions of European solidarity in the age of imperialism have largely been ignored. This paper investigates the specific context in which journalists and politicians voiced such pleas for solidarity, explores the motivations for them, and probes their limits in times of tension. A closer look at the actors involved illustrates the strictures placed on ideas of European solidarity and illuminates the limited potential of projects of integration prior to 1914. However, latter considerations notwithstanding, a discourse on European solidarity in a colonial context did emerge in the decades before the First World War, allowing early proponents of integration to view colonialism as a field for common European action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we discuss regional income growth and inequality based on a new set of long-run data. The data cover 173 European regions in 16 countries, from 1900 to 2015. These data allow us to compare regions over time, among each other, and to other parts of the world. After some brief notes on methodology, we describe the basic patterns in the data in terms of some key dimensions: variation in the density of population and economic activity, structural change with a declining role of agriculture, the rise and fall of industry, and the long rise of services. We show how 'fundamentals' of institutions and geography affected income levels over the twentieth century, and describe how regional growth after 1945 turned from convergence and adjustment to shocks to divergence. In the long run we observe a U-shaped pattern of regional convergence followed by divergence, not unlike recent observations on personal income and wealth distributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cris is the property of Historical Society of Krizevci and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Co-herencia is the property of Universidad EAFIT and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Ars & Humanitas is the property of Ars & Humanitas and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper offers a critical appraisal of citizenship and governance in relation to gender. It draws on poststructuralist themes which look at the relationship between power and discourse. This perspective provides an analytical tool for exploring how gender has been understood in the construction of citizenship and governance values in Europe. Whilst the focus of this discussion is gender, the implications of this analysis for disability and race are also highlighted. The paper argues for a broader, more inclusive, ethical definition of active citizenship that, in turn, will influence how people learn to be citizens and take part in governance. A selected literature identifies different ways in which citizenship is portrayed and learned through texts, schooling, family and social behaviours and traditions. The changing European and globalisation contexts provide additional commentary on the demands for new forms of citizenship and governance. Particular attention is paid to the notion of active citizenship with some recent interpretations of the dichotomy between private (family) and public (political) domains in relation to citizenship and gender. The final sections then analyse different attempts to re-define a gender sensitive concept of citizenship, concluding with the argument for an ethical education which would empower women to play a more active, citizen role in governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the development of economic higher education in Czechoslovakia from 1945 to 1953, ie before the emergence of new economic universities with the same name: University of Economics (Vysoká škola ekonomická) in Prague and Bratislava. Its aim is to determine possible similarities and differences in economic education between the Czech lands and Slovakia. Although the paper embraces the issue comprehensively, the main focus is on the comparison of two of the most important colleges, the Commercial College in Prague and Slovak College of Commerce in Bratislava. It concludes and claims that despite the Czechoslovak uniform policy in tertiary education, there were undoubtedly some national differences. Essentially, they stemmed from different networks and the number of economic schools in the Czech lands and Slovakia and from different prior traditions. Overall, Slovaks endeavoured to continue with the preceding development more than Czechs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Education became a rallying cry in Luxembourg's general elections of 1974. For the first time in the country's post-war history, the Socialists and Democrats entered the government, with new plans for education. The unbroken rule of almost 30 years by the Christian Democrats was over. New 'global' educational concepts were employed to introduce changes in the national curriculum, the aim being a transformation from an elite to a mass system of participation. One of these changes was the idea of the comprehensive school, which divided the electorates, parties and press respectively. Yet, this fundamental change has received little attention in the academic literature. What were the differences between the parties when it came to education policy? By intersecting politics, globalisation and education, this paper examines the impact of the election events of 1974 on Luxembourg's political discourse. The conclusion points to the central role the parties played in the proliferation of new educational norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political competition is the engine for representative democracy. Within the representation mechanics I look at the political space, the dimensionality of political conflict, and how parties try to affect the relative salience of different dimensions by using direct democratic institutions. The leading question is how we can explain initiative use. The paper asks how the costs and benefits of using initiatives affect parties when they decide whether to use this instrument or not. The major argument is that when party competition increases, we will see higher initiative frequencies because parties try to affect the saliency of specific issues to increase their electoral bases. I analyze annual submission rates, the content of proposed initiatives, and the changing share of partisan actors behind initiatives. The findings highlight that the consequences of direct democratic institutions go beyond changing policy outcomes. For the specific case at hand, Switzerland from 1920 to 2011, it is shown that despite numerous opposite claims, there has been no underlying change in strategy or equilibrium but just a slow evolution of underlying factors such as institutional requirements and partisan competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The law in Continental Europe dates back to the time of Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis complexes, which was founded in the 5th century by the King of East Rome, Justinian I. The law in Continental Europe has developed and has taken root in the countries of Continental Europe and in many other countries of the world. The assessment and use of the legal texts of Roman law was the reason for the creation of a common legal basis on which legal science in Europe is based. Legal science in Europe has influenced the implementation of the law and this implementation has found a place in many European Countries. Particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis's Kazuistic texts have had great impact, which texts bring solutions to eventualities. The law in Continental Europe has achieved its development until the adoption of abstraction and general rules through the interpretation of the Corpus Juris Civilis codification, with the adaptation of Roman law as well as theoretically with the national codification which is based on Roman law. The law in Continental Europe, although it represents the first beginnings of the legal life of the European people, is always defined as a right which has kept alive the reform spirit, has been systematized in a wider range, and has always been adhering to general principles. Most of the laws from Continental Europe have been codified in the 19th and 20th century. As an example we can mention the Austrian Civil Code which entered into force in 1811, the German Civil Code which came into force in 1896, the Civil Code of Switzerland, which entered into force in 1907 and the Italian Civil Code which came into force on the year 1942. There are substantial and important differences between these civil codes. It is commonly seen that even in the Legal System of Continental Europe there is a cross classification of Roman justice and German law. The law in continental Europe is largely classified and structured and contains many general principles and rules; is also based on abstraction rules, all jurisdictions are systematized and it is a valid juridical method of judgment. One of its core qualities is that the courts respect law and judge by law, interpret them and apply them in cases where there are disputes and gaps within the law. It is generally assumed that law can be applied anywhere. Where the law can not be applied, in order to fill legal gaps the judges refer to the general rules and principles. Therefore, through this paper we will highlight the fundamental characteristics and the general approach to the judicial system in Continental Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researches related to borders, border regions and cross-border cooperations in Europe have undergone substantial changes throughout history. The focus of the theoretical approaches shifted not only as a matter of time but also depending on the geostrategic position of the nation states, state borders and border regions. The study of the theory of borders and border regions has been pushed into the background for a long time. It was mostly due to the widely accepted notion that all borders and border regions were unique. The processes and events of history and economic life, nevertheless, proved that there are many similarities between each border region. As a result of this, the harmonisation of the activities in the border regions was started, and the facilities for cross-border co-operations began to improve. The co-operation along the certain border regions, however, differed in many respects. Consequently, researches and studies related to the individual borders may be compared and categorised on the basis of the nature of the co-operation. In addition to the historical perspective of the theoretical development of borders, the paper concentrates more thoroughly on the second half of the twentieth century. Comparing the focuses of border theories reveal that the accelerating integration process in the early 1990s led to a shift more and more eastward, and regionalism, and more specifically cross-border regions, appeared as a new research area providing a basis and scope for several studies and researches. The researches related to crossborder co-operations affect a great variety of disciplines, thus, a complex conclusion may be only drawn with the evaluation and combination of the existing research trends. Most authors apply either a multi-, inter- or transdisciplinary approach during their research activities. Nevertheless, it may be established that most papers published on the topic are rooted in only a few disciplines. The influential power of time and (geographical) space is explained with the help of a comparative analysis of existing models and finally a complex model is suggested for the better understanding of the functional role of cross-border cooperations in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Synergies Mexique is the property of GERFLINT (Groupe d'Etudes et de Recherches pour le Francais Langue Internationale) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

While the newly available ancient DNA data have shaken a lot of archaeological debates, they have, despite their enormous potential, not yet had any meaningful impact on the way we view prehistory. Instead of using this new data-source to explore new questions, or at least to re-assess the old ones, aDNA results have been tacked onto some of the most outdated narratives in European prehistory, stemming from the early twentieth century. The simplified Steppe migration narrative builds upon long-outdated culture-historical concepts, sloppy classification work, and a reliance on a monothetic culture concept which was convincingly deconstructed 50 years ago by David Clarke. In this paper, a polythetic approach to the material of the third millennium BC presents a different picture of the period. Additionally relying on a practice-based approach to how new transregional objects and practices are integrated into local contexts, it is argued that these two adjustments to our approach to the archaeological material can significantly improve the aDNA-archaeology dialogue, and better integrate the different datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

'Energy' presents a number of complex and interrelated challenges regarding the environment, economy, and politics. In this paper, we argue that cartography should help clarify our understanding of energy issues, but ask whether this has in fact been the case. In a review of over 100 articles pulled from twenty-three peer-reviewed geography journals, we qualitatively assess energy maps published since the early 20th century, examining trends in topic and cartographic technique. Energy maps in geography journals have focused on North America and Western Europe while relying on proportional symbols, grayscale production, and the analysis of energy phenomena at the national scale-tendencies that in many instances have limited our understanding of the ways in which energy is actually consumed. Simultaneously, cartographers are limited to the energy data available to them, frequently precluding small-scale consumption analysis or consideration of diurnal and seasonal trends. We argue that the future of energy cartography relies on access to consumption data coupled with greater user interactivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a realistic appreciation of Greek communist perceptions of international realities and their impact on their domestic disposition and tactics in 1944–1949, during a particularly dense and rapidly changing international milieu. In a context whose volatility fuelled too many false perceptions, the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) chose to internalise whatever it interpreted as positive signs and ignore those suggesting imponderables and adversities. The real difficulty for the Greek communists, however, was not the accuracy of their perceptions or lack thereof, but a lack of sufficient power to survive their inaccuracy. In addition, historiographically the paper seeks to redress the analytical balance in favour of national, regional and international politics as against the recent flood of local area studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article argues for a broader understanding of the history of occupation on the basis of the spatial theory of Henri Lefebvre. In a first step, the Generalplan Ost as designed by Nazi organizers and experts is read as a Nazi representation of space. Moving on from this organization of space, the appropriation of space is examined in a discussion of actual occupation policy in Eastern Europe. Here the Nazi plans for the spatialization of racism were made reality. With the extension of the history of occupation in mind, the paper then moves on from the perspective of the occupier and the focus on planning and execution, to look with Lefebvre at two other dimensions of space: the lived space of everyday life and the associated spatial practices. In doing so the focus is shifted to the actors living in that space, that is, both the occupiers and the occupied populations. Using the example of prisoner of war camps as a clear manifestation of the state of occupation, the practices that emerged in reaction to them will be analysed, revealing both specific patterns of solidarity in a society in a state of occupation and spatial practices ostracizing Jews in urban and rural communities. The paper thus shows that geographies of occupation, although rooted analytically in the occupiers' representations of space and the ideologies, power relationships and knowledge regimes associated therewith, cannot stop there and need to look at the space of the occupied and their everyday experience. The geographies of power and powerlessness that emerge need to be examined in a wider history of occupation, demonstrating that the mass murder of the European Jews could only take place under the specific conditions of war and occupation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Radovi Zavod za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zaru is the property of Zavod za Povijesne Znanosti HAZU and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines the relationships between space, ethnic identity and anti-state violence in twentieth century London. It will do so by comparing the Spitalfields violence of 1906 and the Brixton unrest of 1981. The association of physical metropolitan space with 'difference' in the Edwardian East End and post-consensus South London, and how this 'othering' was influenced both by the state and the anti-migrant far right will be analysed. The paper will then dissect relationships between the police and working class Jewish and Caribbean communities, and how these deteriorating relationships exploded into extreme violence in 1906 and 1981. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 1933 and 1939, around 20,000 Jewish, ‘non-Aryan’ or politically active refugee women from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia entered Britain on domestic service permits. Their immigration, mostly organised by women in the British voluntary sector, served as a moral response to the humanitarian crisis caused by Fascism in Europe, and a practical response to the ‘servant crisis’ in Britain as working-class women increasingly rejected domestic labour. This paper considers the practical and emotional relationships around domestic service and argues that the acceptance of refugee women into the metropolitan British home was conditional on the tacit expectation they could fill the vacancy left by the working classes, becoming British through their labour. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper looks at the educational project of Belgium’s acclaimed socialist and modernist architect Renaat Braem (1910–2001). While Braem is foremost remembered as a militant opinion maker, his work as an educator and an artist has received little scrutiny. When Braem was appointed interim director at the Antwerp National Higher Institute for Architecture and Urban Planning (NHIBS) in 1962, his first action point was not to change the curriculum. He instead reconstructed the physical configuration of the school. With an eye-catching staircase painting, he accentuated an important passage in the school building: the one from the administrative offices and library to the architectural studios. Claiming a central position in the institute, the staircase functioned as a stage and an auditorium on which an ideological and educational programme was enacted in an implicit, yet very physical manner. This article not only looks atwhatthe painting represents, but also athowit represents by applying Randolph Starn’s three categories of seeing: the glance, the measured view, and the scan. This threefold reading of the painting enables us to unpack (a) Braem’s educational project based on a socialist ideology and (b) the institutional climate of the 1960s. In the institutional debates, hovering between tradition and the rationalisation of education, Braem’s staircase painting proposed a third way. It revised the existing doctrines by reconciling the rational approach with a stronger focus on the human in the built environment. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper estimates and analyses wage inequality trends in Portugal, from 1944 to 1984, a period that comprises the Estado Novo dictatorship and the first decade after the transition to democracy. Wage inequality is measured by the gap between skilled and unskilled labour, and reveals a downward trend in most of the period in analysis. We provide an explanation for the observed trends by looking at the influence of domestic and international forces on changes in the relative supply and demand of skilled labour. According to our findings, the skill premium declined due to the combined influence of two major forces: an increase in the relative supply of skilled labour due to the mass emigration of unskilled labour, and the decrease in the relative demand for skills, related to trade-induced changes stemming from the country's increasing openness, which followed the country's unskilled labour comparative advantages. Our findings point to the conclusion that the impact of openness on wage inequality is related to the country's relative level of development among its major trading partners. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article reviews the literature on the relationship between consumption and technological development to understand the character of Europe’s 20th-century trajectory, i.e. the hidden integration of Europe long before the formal process of unification started. Within the rich historiography, the paper focuses on the intersection between production and consumption, where a range of social actors and institutions sought to represent consumers and mediate consumption. It is at this juncture of mediation that social actors and institutions negotiated the mediated design and the appropriation of new products and technologies. The paper further historicizes the juncture of mediation by introducing the European politics of the state, marketplace, and civil society within the context of economic crises, world wars, revolutionary changes, post-war reconstruction, and cold war. By looking at the mediation junction, a conceptual frame is offered to understand the connection, the disconnection, or the reconfiguration of technologies and consumer identities in 20th-century Europe. In a final section, the article suggests new avenues for research to examine the hidden integration of Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Lietuvos Archeologija is the property of Lithuanian Institute of History and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of eHumanista is the property of Professor Antonio Cortijo-Ocana and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Federalism, or the fear of it, worked as a catalyst in the British pre-referendum debate on Brexit in June 2016. In this paper, we focus on the pre-European integration context and ask what kind of an alternative federalism was seen to afford in British politics during and after the Second World War. We limit our discussion to parliamentary debates, which have only rarely been used as primary sources for studying European integration history. The British Parliament was one of the key political arenas for debates on foreign policy, not just in terms of informing the party lines but also guiding the public discussion. In the early part of the 1940s, the British federalist movement was able to generate political debate on the issue and gain the attention of many leading politicians. We argue that the approach to the use of the concept was politically charged but remained open to various context-based interpretations, which did not eventually lead to any concrete proposals. During the latter part of the 1940s, the majority of British MPs were open to different ways of creating unity in Europe. The emphasis on national sovereignty, however, continued. As a result ‘federalism’, attached to structures for unity, gave way to more pragmatic political solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In 1933, a number of European intellectuals among whom Paul Valéry, Johan Huizinga, Julien Benda, Hermann von Keyserling, met in Madrid and in Paris to discuss the identity and history of Europe under the initiative of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. During the symposia, the participants try to define a common European narrative beyond national differences, and some of them evoke the idea of a European ‘homeland’ or ‘nation’, as already advocated in those years by Gaston Riou (Europe ma patrie, 1928) and Julien Benda (Discours à la nation européenne, 1933). Salvador de Madariaga for example calls for a ‘European nationalism’; Georges Duhamel presents ‘Mother Europe’ as an opposing force to growing patriotism; Julio Dantas hopes for a ‘européenité’ as opposed to the individual ‘national’ feelings. What is the reason for insisting so repeatedly on those concepts, when trying to overcome the dangers of nationalism? This paper analyses the different formulations adopted by the participants in the symposiums to describe their idea of a European ‘nation/homeland’, and tries to identify the specific aspects and historical implications of these concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite the fact that attempts to make this type of collaboration permanent failed during the years which followed, the Euro-Arab Dialogue was a significant moment in the field of international relations and of the history of the European Community, especially analyzing the global scenario and the American opposition. Thought by the Quai d'Orsay to be an alternative strategy to the Washington deals during the 1973 oil crisis, it certainly represented an important attempt to develop an EC foreign policy that did not necessarily imply – as it turned out –incompatibility with the wishes of the White House. The purpose of this paper is to examine the development of the EAD and to compare it with the Trans-Atlantic dealings. Nevertheless, the typology and the methods of Washington opposition changed over time; in some circumstances Kissinger seemed to control the evolution of the EAD, pressing the Western European governments to confront and oppose the Arab intention to transform the dialogue into a base for political claims. This manuscript aims at investing the beginning of the EAD and the relations with the Trans-Atlantic limits and constraints, mainly using archival documents available at the Historical Archives of the European Union, at the National Archive, at the National Archives and Record Administration. There is not much literature about the EAD and this is mainly focused on the poor results. Beside the first academic works with a political science approach (i.e.: Al-Dajani, 1976; Allen, 1977; Taylor, 1978; Jawad, 1992), in the new articles the EAD is not always the main subject (i.e.: Miller, 2014; Möckli, 2009). Furthermore, Bat Ye'or (2005) attaches too much importance to the political issues, while Zakariah (2013) focuses its analysis on the ‘real' attitude of the British policy towards the EAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comments on several articles about economic development which appeared in the March 1980 issue of `The Journal of Economic History.' Economic implications of the Edwin W. Kemmerer financial missions in Colombia; Effect of grain farming practices on the productivity and economic expansion of the Prairie Provinces in Canada between 1880 and 1930; Comparison of the patterns of proto-industrial expansion in Eastern and Western Europe.

After the liberation of the Second World War, the governing parties in both Belgium and The Netherlands agreed that it was necessary to punish the collaborators. But the notion that the large majority had to be ‘re-educated’ for social reintegration also very soon prevailed in both countries. Collaborators had to be ‘cured’ to become full democratic national citizens again, and their punishment was designed to achieve this. Although in the last few decades the research scope of transitional justice has developed greatly and has contributed to an ever more nuanced picture of the punishment of collaboration in the post-war period, the question of to what extent prisons were used as places to ‘improve’ enemies of the state during a regime change has largely been overlooked. But precisely by studying the execution of the punishment, underlying ideologies and interests are exposed, and we can see how well defined citizenship was. This paper, with the aid of the Dutch–Belgian comparison, considers how post-war re-education was approached in those countries and what this says about the meaning of imprisonment during regime changes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Due to its claim of contemporary exceptionalism, the notion of superdiversity raises suspicion among historians. However, historians would do well to not dismiss the entire superdiversity debate as more hype that does not concern them. As a multidimensional perspective on diversity, encouraging researchers to examine the interplay of many different factors that condition people's lives and to move beyond an ethno-focal perspective, superdiversity could be of interest to historians as well. This article shows how the notion can help historians debunk some of the homogenizing categories that tend to characterize the representation of past immigrant populations. The paper uses a superdiversity lens to examine migration to the city of Ghent from 1960 to 1980. It is an open invitation to historians to accept the challenges that superdiversity poses and to provide a proper historicization of the concept, thus furthering its theoretical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European power in the 21st century is not what it was in the 20th century. The rules‐based liberal international order that Europe helped to construct after the Second World War is under threat, and arguably in decline. As this 'order' diminishes, so too does Europe's ability to influence world events. While Europe will never command either the military or economic hard and 'sharp' power of the United States or China, it remains an important international actor with considerable soft power, even with the United Kingdom's recent departure from the union. Although we question some of the assumptions and priorities identified by the authors of 'Enhancing Europe's Global Power', we share their view that a united and strong Europe has a great deal to offer to the world, particularly in the areas of data governance and tertiary education. In addition to data governance and tertiary education, several other areas where Europe could exert influence would not only advance its interests but also contribute to the betterment of the global commons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1893 to 1905, the values of the geomagnetic field recorded three times a day are available from the (Ogyalla magnetic observatory. We introduce these unique records, and at the same time, we provide an analysis of three noteworthy magnetic storms from this period, namely the events on 30 March 1894, 9 September 1898, and 31 October 1903. In addition to violent magnetic variations, remarkable auroras were observed in Central Europe during these events. The analysed events indicate that the source of the most intense, potentially dangerous geomagnetic disturbances can be the electric currents of the auroral oval or the field-aligned currents connected to the auroral oval. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue examines how refugees and refugee crises were defined and managed by European nation-states in the four decades after the end of the First World War. Our introduction sketches out the broad historical canvas of the refugee problem in Europe and highlights a number of overarching themes of and comparisons between the papers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article explores how perceptions of Jewish power shaped the negotiations between Czechoslovak leaders and Jewish minority representatives at the time of the Pads Peace Conference. In the aftermath of the First World War, Prague-based Zionists embarked on a mission to convince Czechoslovak elites that attacks on Jews were detrimental to the internal stability of the new state and to Czechoslovak interests abroad. As Edvard Beneš, the head of the Czechoslovak delegation in Paris, worked to cultivate an image of the new state as more "Western" and "civilised" than other successor states - a strategy meant to gamer international support for Czechoslovak territorial demands and its projected absorption of large minority populations - Jewish activists encouraged his uncertainty with regard to Jews' influence on Western audiences and statesmen. They did so in order to convince him to accept their demands for special protection clauses for the new country's Jews. The paper thus shows that the unprecedented victimisation of Jews and the upsurge in antisemitism dtiring and after the war coexisted with a new bold and public Jewish activism. Yet, Jewish leaders did not in the end have the ability to convince Benes and his colleagues to give in to international Jewish demands for special protection. Instead, they sought to cultivate a strategic alliance between the state's Czech elite and the Jewish minority which centred on the claim that Czechoslovakia was a particularly welcoming and tolerant place for Jews, an image that would evolve into a significant component of the myth of Czechoslovakia as an island of democracy in Eastern Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the author introduces the conceptualization process of militant democracy since the 30s of the 20th century until today. Ideas of the founders of this concept, i. e. Karl Loewenstein and Carl Schmitt, are outlined. He points out the extension of this concept and its criticism by other authors. In this regard, the efforts of the political classification of defense of democracy against its ideological enemies are notified. Finally, the author discusses the application of the concept of militant democracy by European democratic states. In more detail, German and Czech defending democracies are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historians have labelled the development of modern mass-consumer societies in Europe as a process of ‘Americanisation’. Until today, the consumption of immaterial goods like vacations has been rather neglected by historiography. The purpose of this article is to verify the hypothesis that the United States served as a role model for European vacationing patterns and the evolution of the European travel industry. The paper demonstrates that a simple model of ‘Americanisation’ does not adequately represent the process of partial imitation, adaptation and alteration of American travel patterns through European societies and, more particular, through European holiday providers. National traditions and cultural differences of vacationing continue to exist until today. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In most film histories of the twentieth century Hollywood's dominance has been indisputable. Apparently, European filmmakers were always facing one choice: either imitating the American style or finding a niche in the Hollywood system. This dominance is often referred to as evidence for an ‘Americanisation’ of popular culture in Europe. This article shows that this narrative leaves out a central development between 1927 and 1968: the nationalisation of popular European cinema. The paper asks which conditions facilitated and shaped national film cultures and shows how the political regulation of production in European countries, the momentum of the market, technology and the national industries contributed to the nationalisation of European film. Ultimately, however, the productions of these national cinemas resonated with audiences who sustained them for years following the Second World War. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

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The aim of this article is to assess the sustainability of neutrality in the early Cold War. This issue is examined through the study of Switzerland's armament policy. The Swiss were able to maintain their status of a permanent neutral after the Second World War, and thus succeeded in upholding a centuries-long policy. Their armed neutrality, however, required modern weaponry. In search of this material Switzerland turned to the West, while refusing to purchase weapons from the East. The paper argues that Switzerland's self-imposed policy of armed neutrality increased Swiss dependence on western armaments, and thereby endangered its neutrality status and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper investigates the strategies, structures and performance of large Dutch firms in the period 1963-2003, and compares the results with those of other European companies. Did Dutch companies develop corporate strategies and structures comparable to other European companies in response to the Treaty of Rome 1957, which signalled the start of gradual European economic integration? In this period Dutch firms became larger and increasingly active outside their national borders. This article describes the strategies and structures of large firms in this period, in order to investigate how firms dealt with the changing environment and also how firms anticipated and benefited from these changes. In addition, it analyses the corporate performance effects of changes in the environment and strategies and structures. With a strong preference for related diversification, Dutch companies showed a strategy comparable with three large European countries. Initially, many Dutch companies opted for the multidivisional structure, but after the 1980s the functional holding gradually became the most important structure. The choice of structure, however, was not critical to performance, in contrast to the choice of strategy. The related diversified strategy turned out to be the best performing strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the relationship between the policies of the Soviet Union and the state of communism in Europe following World War Two. The author attests that two fundamental differences arose in the Soviet attitude regarding Europe: the cessation of revolution as a viable means of solving conflicts between states and the emergence of a communist influence that was integral to Europe’s future. The role of Joseph Stalin, who held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union’s Central Committee, is discussed. The paper urges that the hostilities that arose between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia led to the demise of any potential for international communism.

Between 1920 and 1940, fertility dropped below replacement level in many Western countries. In today's scholarly literature, the drop is usually explained as a temporary reaction to the exceptional conditions of the inter-war period. This paper confronts that interpretation with the interpretations offered by scholars writing between the wars. According to leading demographers of the time, low fertility was due not to war or economic crisis, but rather to processes that now tend to be associated with the Second Demographic Transition, including secularization, individualization, rising consumerism, and women's emancipation. Since these were seen as structural features of modernization, most inter-war scholars argued that subreplacement fertility would remain an obstinate feature of modern society for an extended period of time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]