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International audience; Mycobacterium bovis infection was first described in free-ranging wildlife in France in 2001, with subsequent detection in hunter-harvested ungulates and badgers in areas where outbreaks of bovine tuberculosis (TB) were also detected in cattle. Increasing concerns regarding TB in wildlife led the French General Directorate for Food (DGAL) and the main institutions involved in animal health and wildlife management, to establish a national surveillance system for TB in free-ranging wildlife. This surveillance system is known as “Sylvatub.” The system coordinates the activities of various national and local partners. The main goal of Sylvatub is to detect and monitor M. bovis infection in wildlife through a combination of passive and active surveillance protocols adapted to the estimated risk level in each area of the country. Event-base surveillance relies on M. bovis identification (molecular detection) (i) in gross lesions detected in hunter-harvested ungulates, (ii) in ungulates that are found dead or dying, and (iii) in road-killed badgers. Additional targeted surveillance in badgers, wild boars and red deer is implemented on samples from trapped or hunted animals in at-risk areas. With the exception of one unexplained case in a wild boar, M. bovis infection in free-living wildlife has always been detected in the vicinity of cattle TB outbreaks with the same genotype of the infectious M. bovis strains. Since 2012, M. bovis was actively monitored in these infected areas and detected mainly in badgers and wild boars with apparent infection rates of 4.57–5.14% and 2.37–3.04%, respectively depending of the diagnostic test used (culture or PCR), the period and according to areas. Sporadic infection has also been detected in red deer and roe deer. This surveillance has demonstrated that M. bovis infection, in different areas of France, involves a multi-host system including cattle and wildlife. However, infection rates are lower than those observed in badgers in the United Kingdom or in wild boars in Spain.

This study was coordinated by the French Hunting and Wildlife Agency and co-funded by the French Ministry of Agriculture. The Ph.D. grant was co-supported by the French Ministry of Research, the French Hunting and Wildlife Agency, ANSES, and VetAgroSup Lyon.; International audience; Wildlife reservoirs of infectious diseases raise major management issues. In Europe, brucellosis has been eradicated in domestic ruminants from most countries and wild ruminants have not been considered important reservoirs so far. However, a high prevalence of Brucella melitensis infection has been recently identified in a French population of Alpine ibex (Capra ibex), after the emergence of brucellosis was confirmed in a dairy cattle farm and two human cases. This situation raised the need to identify the factors driving the persistence of Brucella infection at high prevalence levels in this ibex population. In the present paper, we studied the shedding pattern of B. melitensis in ibex from Bargy Massif, French Alps. Bacteriological examinations (1–15 tissues/samples per individual) were performed on 88 seropositive, supposedly infected and euthanized individuals. Among them, 51 (58%) showed at least one positive culture, including 45 ibex with at least one Brucella isolation from a urogenital sample or a lymph node in the pelvic area (active infection in organs in the pelvic area). Among these 45 ibex, 26 (30% of the total number of necropsied animals) showed at least one positive culture for a urogenital organ and were considered as being at risk of shedding the bacteria at the time of capture. We observed significant heterogeneity between sex-and-age classes: seropositive females were most at risk to excrete Brucella before the age of 5 years, possibly corresponding to abortion during the first pregnancy following infection such as reported in the domestic ruminants. The high shedding potential observed in young females may have contributed to the self-sustained maintenance of infection in this population, whereas males are supposed to play a role of transmission between spatial units through venereal transmission during mating. This heterogeneity in the shedding potential of seropositive individuals should be considered in the future to better evaluate management scenarios in this system as well as in others.

International audience; When bovine tuberculosis (bTB) circulates in a multi-host system, it is paramount to characterize the interactions between wildlife and livestock as they may lead to interspecific transmission. To that purpose, we undertook a 1-year survey in 25 farms located in an infected area in the Burgundy region (east central France). We used camera traps deployed on 101 water and food access points located in pastures and farm buildings considered as attractive points for red deer, wild boar, and badgers. For each species, we analyzed the duration of each visit, the number of individuals, their behavior, and the frequency of visits. Wild boar was the most frequent species, with 5.0 visits/100 nights, and their visits occurred most frequently around water sources and in summer. The frequency of visits from red deer was highest at salt licks and in summer. Badger was more frequent in winter and on pasture feed troughs. These results highlight the wide variation in the patterns of contact at the wildlife-cattle interface among the different bTB-susceptible species. Combined with other epidemiological data, these data could be used both to assess the risk of bTB transmission in Burgundy and to implement biosecurity measures.

Concerns about the spread of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have led to cloacal swab sampling of hundreds of thousands of birds worldwide as part of AIV surveillance schemes, but the effects of cloacal swabbing have not been adequately evaluated. We tested for differences between swabbed, swabbed and bled, and non-sampled wild ducks in terms of live re-encounter and dead recoveries for Common Pochard Aythya ferina and Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula, and also determined re-encounter and recovery rates for Mallard Anas platyrhynchos and Common Teal Anas crecca. No effects of sampling methods were detected, except in Teal. Re-encounter rates were lower in sampled Teal than in controls, with annual re-encounter probabilities being 25% and 35% lower in males and females, respectively. Teal possibly left or avoided sampling sites, or sought sites where they were less detectable after sampling. In general, no deleterious effects were found, suggesting that cloacal swabbing and blood sampling are suitable methods for conducting AIV surveillance in ducks.

Summary The Schmallenberg virus (SBV) has recently emerged in Europe, causing losses to the domestic livestock. A retrospective analysis of serodata was conducted in France for estimating seroprevalence of SBV among six wildlife species from 2011–2012 to 2013–2014, that is during the three vector seasons after the emergence of the SBV in France. Our objective was to quantify the exposure of wildlife to SBV and the potential protective effect of elevation such as previously observed for bluetongue. We also compared the spatiotemporal trends between domestic and wild animals at the level of the departments. We tested 2050 sera using competitive ELISA tests. Individual and population risk factors were further tested using general linear models among 1934 individuals. All populations but one exhibited positive results, seroprevalence up to 30% being observed for all species. The average seroprevalence did not differ between species but ranged from 0 to 90% according to the area and period, due to the dynamic pattern of infection. Seroprevalence was on average higher in the lowlands compared to areas located up to 800 m. Nevertheless, seroprevalence above 50% occurred in areas located up to 1500 m. Thus, contrary to what had been observed for bluetongue during the late 2000s in the same areas, SBV could spread to high altitudes and infect all the studied species. The spatial spread of SBV in wildlife did not fully match with SBV outbreaks reported in the domestic livestock. The mismatch was most obvious in mountainous areas where outbreaks in wildlife occurred on average one year after the peak of congenital cases in livestock. These results suggest a much larger spread and vector capacity for SBV than for bluetongue virus in natural areas. Potential consequences for wildlife dynamics are discussed.

Summary In early 2001, Mycobacterium bovis infection was confirmed in red deer (RD) (Cervus elaphus) shot in Normandy region, France. An epidemiological survey conducted during the following hunting season in two connected forests confirmed the occurrence of the disease in both free-ranging RD and wild boar (WB) (Sus scrofa). This was the first detected bovine tuberculosis outbreak in wildlife in France. We present a simple deterministic age-structured model of the within- and between-species M. bovis transmission in RD and WB populations that distinguishes direct transmission (horizontal and pseudo-vertical) and indirect transmission through contaminated offal left behind by hunters. Results issued from the epidemiological surveys conducted in Normandy forests were used to estimate transmission parameters. Because data for RD and WB populations were not available, population sizes at demographic equilibrium were estimated and used to run the model. We qualitatively tested different control measure scenarios with our model, considering different mortality rates and offal harvesting, to determine which ones affect the success of infection control. The most realistic control scenario would combine the total depopulation of RD and good compliance with offal harvesting, because the model suggests that infected offal left by hunters represents the main transmission source of M. bovis in the field.

Results of the surveillance of regulated contagious diseases in the french wildlife. The FrenchMinistry of Agriculture, the National Hunting andWildlife Agency (ONCFS) and the hunters’ associations are increasingly concerned with the impact of wildlife diseases on livestock and human health. The demographic growth of some wild species is further increasing this risk. In France, wildlife diseases aremonitored passively through the SAGIR network, whose objective is to diagnose the causes of wildlife mortality, and actively by targeting certain species and diseases with a major economic or public health impact. This surveillance programhas shown for instance that wild boars act as a reservoir for Brucella suis biovar 2 and the Aujeszky’s disease virus, and that they are responsible for the contamination of open-air pig farms, as well as for the persistence for over fifteen years of the virus of classical swine fever in the North-East of France and in other parts of Europe. Oral vaccination of wild boars had been thus implemented since 2004 in order to control the enzooty. Since 2001, cases of bovine tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis have been identified in red deer and wild boar in several areas of France, which threaten disease-free livestock. Likewise, the question of a possible role of wild ruminants in the epidemiology of Bluetongue disease is being raised. Finally, wild birds constitute uncontrollable reservoirs for influenza and West Nile viruses, among others, and may threaten domestic poultry, humans or horses. The sanitary status of wild species is thus increasingly taken into account in the management and control of livestock diseases., Les ministères chargés de l’Agriculture et le monde cynégétique sont de plus en plus préoccupés par le risque sanitaire que peut représenter la faune sauvage pour les animaux d’élevage et l’homme. Ce risque est aggravé par la croissance démographique de certaines espèces sauvages. En France, l’épidémiosurveillance des maladies de la faune sauvage est assurée par le réseau SAGIR dont l’objectif est de diagnostiquer les causes de mortalité des animaux sauvages (surveillance passive), ainsi que par la mise en oeuvre de plans de surveillance ciblés sur certaines espèces et sur des maladies à impact économique ou zoonotique majeur (surveillance active). Les résultats de cette surveillance montrent, par exemple, que le sanglier est un réservoir de Brucella suis biovar 2 et du virus de la maladie d’Aujeszky, responsable de la contamination d’élevages de porcs en plein air, et qu’il entretient depuis plus de quinze ans le virus de la peste porcine classique dans le nord-est de la France, comme dans d’autres régions d’Europe. Depuis 2001, des cas de tuberculose bovine à Mycobacterium bovis ont été découverts chez les cerfs et les sangliers dans plusieurs départements, laissant peser un risque de recontamination de cheptels bovins indemnes. De même, la question du rôle joué par les ruminants sauvages dans l’épidémiologie de la fièvre catarrhale ovine est posée. Enfin, les oiseaux sauvages, réservoirs incontrôlables des virus influenza et du virusWest Nile pour ne citer qu’eux, peuvent représenter un risque pour les volailles, l’homme ou le cheval. De ce fait, la faune sauvage est maintenant prise en compte dans les mesures de gestion sanitaire des maladies animales., Hars Jean, Rossi Sophie. Résultats de la surveillance de maladies animales réputées contagieuses (MARC) dans la faune sauvage en France. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 162 n°3, 2009. pp. 215-223.

Classical swine fever (CSF) is of increasing concern in Europe where wild boar appear to play an important epidemiological role. In most parts of the continent, demographic trends are on the increase, due to improvement in game management. As a result of higher densities, populations become more susceptible to various infectious diseases, among which CSF is cause for particular concern. Wild boar do not appear to be a classic reservoir in most cases, but nevertheless may perpetuate foci of infection over the long term, constituting a real threat for the pig farming industry. Since the infection does not appear to spread easily in natural populations of free-ranging wild boars, control of the disease may be feasible. However, most of the appropriate measures, such as banning hunting, are not considered acceptable. Consequently, the expertise of wildlife disease specialists is required to help solve the problem when it occurs.

International audience; Schmallenberg virus infection is emerging in European domestic and wild ruminants. We investigated the serologic status of 9 red deer populations to describe virus spread from September 2010 through March 2012 among wildlife in France. Deer in 7 populations exhibited seropositivity, with an average seroprevalence of 20%.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.-- et al., The Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa) is increasingly considered as a relevant actor in the epidemiology of animal tuberculosis (TB). Therefore, monitoring TB in wild boar becomes a key tool for establishing comprehensive control schemes for this disease. To estimate the exposure of free living wild boar to Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) in France, a bovine-purified protein derivative based ELISA was used to test 2,080 archived serum samples of hunter-harvested animals in 58 French “départements”. Two cut-off values were used for diagnostic interpretation: 0.2, recommended by the manufacturer (specificity: 96.43%; sensitivity: 72.6%), and 0.5 (specificity: 100%; sensitivity: 64%). During the same period, at the 0.2 cut-off, global true seroprevalence was 5.9% (IC95%: 4.3%-7.7%) and 76% of the sampled “départements” had seropositive wild boar, including seven cattle TB-free “départements. At the 0.5 cut-off, global true seroprevalence was 2.2% (IC95%: 1.5-3.2) and positive wild boar belonged to 21% of the “départements”. All but one of these positive “départements” had reported at least one cattle TB outbreak since 2000. A good consistence between seropositive wild boar and TB outbreaks in cattle was found, especially at the 0.5 cut-off value (the mean distance to the nearest cattle TB outbreak was 13km and 27km for seropositive and seronegative wild boar, respectively; P, This study was funded by our own institutional resources (Anses).

Bovine tuberculosis in wildlife in France. Risk for cattle Tuberculosis (TB) due to M. bovis has been described in wildlife species of many countries, albeit, depending on the situation, being considered as a sentinel or a reservoir of the infection for livestock and/or human. In France, TB has been discovered for the first time, in 2001, in wild ungulates of the Brotonne Forest (Normandy). Since then, passive and active surveillance for the disease has been implemented in several regions, and later expanded to the whole country through the Sylvatub surveillance program since 2011. Firstly described in wild boar and red deer, it has also been detected in 2009 in badgers of Côte d’Or, then in 2010 in Dordogne and Charente. The presence of high density populations of wild animals and some practices as artificial feeding, which lead to non-natural high concentrations of animals, are major factors of emergence and persistence of TB in wildlife. In several French regions, M. bovis would be circulating in a multi-host system including bovines (and pigs, in Corsica only), several wildlife species and their environment which thus complicates the epidemiology and sanitary management of the disease., La tuberculose à Mycobacterium bovis (TB) est décrite dans la faune sauvage de plusieurs pays, celle-ci pouvant être, selon les cas, sentinelle ou réservoir de l’infection pour les bovins et/ ou l’homme. En France, la TB a été découverte en 2001 chez des ongulés sauvages en forêt de Brotonne (Normandie). Depuis cette date, une surveillance événementielle et programmée de la maladie a été mise en place dans plusieurs départements, puis étendue de façon harmonisée à tout le territoire français métropolitain grâce à la mise en place du dispositif Sylvatub depuis 2011. D’abord décrite chez les cerfs et les sangliers, la TB a été détectée chez le blaireau en 2009 en Côte d’Or, puis en 2010 en Dordogne et en Charente. La présence de fortes densités d’animaux sauvages et entre autres la pratique de l’agrainage, qui provoque des concentrations artificielles d’animaux, sont des facteurs majeurs d’émergence et de persistance de la TB dans les populations sauvages. Dans plusieurs régions de France, M. bovis semble circuler dans un système multi-hôtes comprenant les bovins (et les porcs en Corse uniquement), plusieurs espèces sauvages et leur environnement ce qui complique l’épidémiologie et la gestion sanitaire de la maladie., Hars Jean, Richomme Céline, Rivière Julie, Payne Ariane, Faure Eva, Boschiroli Maria-Laura. La tuberculose bovine dans la faune sauvage en France. Risques pour l’élevage bovin. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 166 n°3, 2013. pp. 222-228.

International audience; Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite infecting humans and animals. Wild boars Sus scrofa are a potential source of human infection and an appropriate biological model for analyzing T. gondii dynamics in the environment. Here, we aimed to identify environmental factors explaining the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in French wild boar populations. Considering 938 individuals sampled from 377 'communes', overall seroprevalence was 23% (95% confidence interval: [22-24]). Using a Poisson regression, we found that the number of seropositive wild boars detected per 'commune' was positively associated with the presence of European wildcats (Felis silvestris) and moderate winter temperatures.

International audience; Bluetongue (BT) was monitored in wildlife in France during two consecutive years corresponding to contrasting incidence rates in livestock: in 2008 at the peak of domestic outbreaks and in 2009 when very few outbreaks were observed. The disease status of 2 798 ruminants comprising 837 red deer (Cervus elaphus) was explored using ELISA test on serum and real-time RT-PCR test on blood or spleen. A large proportion of red deer were seropositive and positive to RT-PCR in 2008, but also in 2009 (seroprevalence: 47.1% and 24.3%), suggesting that red deer could maintain infection when domestic incidence was negligible. By contrast, low seroprevalence (

In France, several surveillance programmes have been carried out to monitor the presence of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in badgers in regions where cattle or wildlife show high bTB prevalence (Seine-Maritime, Cote d’Or, Dordogne/Charente). Diagnostic methods include post-mortem examination, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or microbiological culture. The frequency of visible lesions was significantly higher in Dordogne/Charente (14/283, 4.9 %) than in Cote d’Or (19/1146, 1.7 %) and Seine-Maritime (2/160, 1.25 %) (Fisher’s exact test, p < 0.001). Lesions were mainly located in cephalic and thoracic lymph nodes with one badger showing generalised tuberculosis. Near infected cattle farms or pastures, Mycobacterium bovis was detected using the culture method in roughly 1 % (1/103) of the badgers sampled in Seine-Maritime and in 5.6 % (49/878) of the badgers sampled in Cote d’Or. In Dordogne/Charente, the prevalence determined by PCR was 13.3 % (29/218). M. bovis was not found in badgers trapped in areas where there are no infected cattle. Spoligotyping and multiple locus variable number tandem repeat analysis showed that all M. bovis strains isolated from badgers were of the same genotype as those isolated from cattle in the vicinity, demonstrating an epidemiological link between both species. These are the first cases of bTB in badgers reported in France. Further surveys and research are needed to investigate the role badgers play in the epidemiology of bTB.

To the Editor: Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonosis caused by Brucella spp. France has been free of bovine, ovine, and caprine brucellosis (caused by B. abortus or B. melitensis) since 2003 (1). In early 2012, an outbreak of bovine and human brucellosis caused by B. melitensis biovar 3 (Bmel3) occurred in a French Alp massif (mountainous region), where the last reported outbreak occurred in 1999 (Technical Appendix Figure) (2). This outbreak suggested the persistence or reemergence of Brucella spp. in livestock. An extensive investigation was conducted that involved 40 animal herds with direct links to the outbreak. Six months later, blood samples from each adult animal in any herd (12,116 animals in 205 herds) that grazed during the summer of 2012 in the massif underwent serologic analysis. However, no other case was identified in this population (Technical Appendix Table 1). Therefore, a potential wildlife source was investigated. Wild ruminants in the study area were the following species: hunted red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), and protected alpine ibex (Capra ibex). Although B. abortus and B. suis infections have been reported in numerous wildlife species (3), B. melitensis has rarely been isolated from wildlife, and only sporadic cases of infection have been reported in Europe, in chamois and alpine ibex in the Alps (4,5) and in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) in the Pyrenees (6). These cases were considered to be caused by spillover from domestic ruminants, which suggests that these wild species are unable to sustain the infection (3). We conducted our investigation during the fall–winter of 2012–2013 in the entire massif where the outbreak occurred. Blood, lung, spleen, and testes or uterus samples were obtained from all hunted animals. French Authorities authorized the killing of 12 seropositive or diseased alpine ibex with clinical signs of brucellosis (i.e., arthritis or orchitis) among 30 captured animals. All serum samples were tested according to standards of the World Organisation for Animal Health (Paris, France) for diagnosis of brucellosis in small ruminants by using by the Rose Bengal test (RBT) and the complement fixation test (CFT) (7), and by indirect ELISA (IDEXX, Montpellier, France) and competitive ELISA (cELISA; Ingenasa, Madrid, Spain). When blood samples were unsuitable for RBT or CFT or were missing, a lung extract was tested by only the 2 ELISAs. Culture was only performed on samples from seropositive animals (Technical Appendix Table 1) (8). A Brucella genus–specific real-time PCR was also used (9). A total of 129 hunted ruminants (55 chamois, 30 red deer, 44 roe deer) were tested. No clinical signs were observed, except for arthritis in the knee of 1 chamois. All ruminants were seronegative except for the chamois, which showed positive results in the RBT, CFT, and cELISA, and 1 red deer, which showed a weakly positive result in the cELISA, but negative results by culture and real-time reverse transcription PCR. Bmel3 was isolated from the chamois (Appendix Table 1). Among 289 alpine ibex observed in the massif, 24 were killed (22 randomly sampled animals that showed 2 diagnostic lesions at necropsy [arthritis in the knee and mammary abscesses]) and 2 diseased animals (arthritis in the knee and orchitis), and samples from these animals were subjected to serologic analysis. Ten alpine ibex (including the 2 diseased animals) showed positive results in the RBT, CFT and both ELISAs, and 2 showed positive results only for both ELISAs. Thus, the prevalence of B. melitensis in randomly captured animals was 45% (10/22; 95% CI 24.6%–66.3%) (Technical Appendix Table 1). Bmel3 was isolated from 5 of 11 seropositive alpine ibex (1 alpine ibex was killed in an avalanche) and from 3 seropositive but culture-negative ibex, which also showed positive results by PCR (Technical Appendix Table 2). Multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis showed similarity among all strains isolated in this study and strains isolated from local domestic outbreaks >13 years ago (10). Although persistence of B. melitensis in wild ruminants has not been reported, and these animals are considered an epidemiologic dead-end reservoir (3), the unexpected prevalence observed (≈50%) suggests that alpine ibex could be the source of bovine brucellosis reemergence in the study area in France. Strict surveillance policies have prevented infection of domestic livestock with B. melitensis in the study area since 1999. However, cohabitation of domestic and wild ruminants on pastures during the summer is rare but possible. Clinical signs and lesions observed in chamois and alpine ibex are consistent with those reported for chamois and alpine ibex with brucellosis (4,5). Positive cultures were obtained from organ samples (knee, testes, and lymph nodes) but also from urogenital fluids, which indicates the potential for excretion of the organism. The fact that births occur during periods and in places where female alpine ibex are not in close contact with other wild/domestic species (because of higher altitude or rocky peaks) could explain the low transmission rate of B. melitensis to these animals. It also suggests that the venereal route might contribute to the transmission within alpine ibex during the mating season in winter. This report demonstrates the need for maintaining an active/reactive surveillance system for livestock and wildlife in brucellosis-free regions. Technical Appendix: Test results (bacteriologic and PCR) for domestic and wild ruminants and areas in France in which alpine ibex and chamois were found infected with Brucella melitensis. Click here to view.(126K, pdf)

International audience; The zoonotic agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB), Mycobacterium bovis, can be transmitted between domestic and wild animals, threatening wildlife populations and control programs for bTB in cattle. In Corsica, a French Mediterranean island where domestic and wild species have close interactions, bTB cases have been reported in cattle, pigs, and wild boar. Moreover, genotypes of M. bovis found in wild and domestic animals from the same area were identical. These data strongly suggest that wild and domestic animals are associated in an epidemiologic bTB-transmission cycle. More investigations are needed, not only to understand the role played by each species in order to implement appropriate control measures, but also to assess the risk of transmission to humans.

In February 2006, a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus was isolated from Common Pochards (Aythia ferina) in the Dombes region of France, an important migrating and wintering waterfowl area. Thereafter, HPAI H5N1 virus was isolated from 39 swab pools collected from dead waterfowl found in the Dombes, but only from three pooled samples collected outside of this area but located on the same migration flyway. A single turkey farm was infected in the Dombes. The epizootic lasted 2 mo and was restricted to the Dombes area. Virus-positive pools were detected in 20 of 1,200 ponds and infected Mute Swans (Cygnus olor) represented 82% of the virus-positive pools. Other infected species included Common Pochard (n=4), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea, n=1), Eurasian Buzzard (Buteo buteo, n=1), and Greylag Goose (Anser anser, n=1). Despite intensive monitoring during and after the outbreak, HPAI H5N1 virus was not isolated from healthy wild birds. Our results are consistent with an HPAI H5N1-virus introduction into the Dombes via migrating ducks. These birds could have been pushed west by a severe cold spell in central Europe where the virus had already been detected. The Mute Swan served as an excellent epidemiologic sentinel during this outbreak; swans appear to be highly sensitive to infection with these viruses and swan mortality was easy to detect. During the outbreak, the mortality rates for wild birds remained moderate and the virus affected a limited number of species.

The data obtained from a survey of Mycobacterium bovis infection in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) conducted in France in the 2005/06 hunting season were used to describe and quantify the pathological findings in the two species. The red deer had caseous abscessed lesions in their organs and lymph nodes, whereas in the wild boar the lesions were predominantly caseocalcareous and occurred mainly in the lymph nodes. The severity of the gross tuberculosis-like lesions was estimated on the basis of a numerical score. The significant difference between the distribution of the scores in the two species indicated that the disease was more serious in the red deer than in the wild boar. Unlike the red deer, the wild boar did not show a generalised pattern of disease. Among the lymph nodes examined systematically, gross lesions were most frequently observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes in the red deer and in the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in the wild boar. In both species, the presence of gross lesions showed the closest agreement with the isolation of M bovis from the same lymph nodes. The different patterns of the lesions of tuberculosis in the two species suggest that red deer might play an important role in the intraspecies and interspecies dissemination of the infection, whereas in wild boar the spread of the infection would be more likely to be restricted to other wild boar.

In early 2001, tuberculosis-like lesions were detected in three hunter-killed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Brotonne Forest (Normandy, France), and Mycobacterium bovis was isolated. In subsequent hunting seasons, two surveys were conducted in the area. In the first survey (2001-02 hunting season), nine (13%) of 72 red deer sampled were positive for M. bovis. In the 2005-06 hunting season, the prevalence of M. bovis infection increased to 24% (chi2=3.85, df=1, P=0.05; 33 positive among 138 sampled). The prevalence remained stable in juveniles, but it increased significantly in adults: from 13% in 2001-02 to 32% in 2005-06 (chi2=5.13, df=1, P=0.02). Wild boar (Sus scrofa) were heavily infected in both surveys. One roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and one red fox (Vulpes vulpes) also tested positive in the second survey. Mycobacterium bovis was not isolated from Eurasian badgers (Meles meles). Spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number tandem repeat analysis demonstrated that all M. bovis strains isolated from wildlife were of the same genotype. Thus, the wildlife outbreak involved only a single strain, and this strain was the same as that circulating in nearby cattle herds since 1995. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of the presence of macroscopic lesions as a diagnostic criterion were evaluated from the data obtained from red deer. Necropsy seems to be satisfactory as a routine tool to monitor the disease in wild red deer populations in which bovine tuberculosis has become established.

Between February and August 2006, 490 wild birds grouped into 302 lots were collected in the East of France (Ain department). Virological tests were performed by the Departemental Laboratory. The M gene, common to all type A avian influenza viruses and detected by PCR on tracheal and cloacal swabs, was present in 41 lots, of which 39 originated from the Dombes area. The National Reference Laboratory (AFSSA Ploufragan) confirmed the presence of the highly pathogenic (HP) strain of H5N1 virus. Nervous signs were detected upon clinical examination in some of the birds. The autopsy showed predominantly congestive and hemorrhagic lesions (thoraco-abdominal cavity, heart and kidneys), often associated in mute swans with pulmonary emphysema, pancreatitis and encephalitis. Some of the birds with macroscopic or histological lesions had a negative PCR. The virus, probably introduced by the common pochard, Aythya ferina, affected mainly swans but also other aquatic or predatory birds. The outbreak lasted from February to April, and was limited to a few villages. Evidence of H5N1-HP excretion was found only in a small number of wild birds and disappeared as the weather started to warm up., Entre février et août 2006, 490 oiseaux sauvages regroupés en 302 lots ont été collectés dans le département de l’Ain et analysés au Laboratoire Départemental d’Analyses. L’analyse virologique par PCR des écouvillons trachéaux et cloacaux a révélé la présence du gène M commun aux virus influenza aviaires de type A dans 41 lots dont 39 provenaient de la Dombes. Le Laboratoire National de Référence (AFSSA Ploufragan) a confirmé la présence du virus H5N1 hautement pathogène (HP). Des oiseaux malades présentaient cliniquement des signes nerveux. À l’autopsie, les lésions congestivo-hémorragiques prédominaient (cavité thoraco-abdominale, coeur et reins), souvent associées, chez les cygnes tuberculés, à des lésions d’emphysème pulmonaire, de pancréatite et d’encéphalite. Certains oiseaux porteurs de lésions visibles à l’examen nécropsique ou histologique avaient une PCR négative. Le virus, probablement introduit par des fuligules milouins, a affecté surtout des cygnes mais aussi, d’autres oiseaux aquatiques ou prédateurs. La maladie est survenue entre février et avril et est restée circonscrite à quelques communes ; l’excrétion de virus H5N1 HP a été mise en évidence chez un faible nombre d’oiseaux sauvages et a disparu avec la remontée de la température ambiante., Baroux Daniel, Neyron Michel, Hars Jean, Ruette Sandrine, Vernet François, Darbon Fernand, Legouge Arnaud, Lombard Géraldine. Observations, symptômes et lésions relevés sur l'avifaune sauvage de l'ain lors de l'épisode d'influenza aviaire H5N1 HP en 2006. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 160 n°2, 2007. pp. 115-124.

Although veterinary authorities aim to limit persistence of classical swine fever (CSF) in wild boar (Sus scrofa), to avoid potential transmission to pigs, factors influencing CSF transmission and persistence are not clearly understood. Here we analyse incidence and persistence in a CSF epidemic that occurred in the French Vosges Forest. Higher incidence was found in large forests compared to smaller isolated ones, being highest near the starting point of the epidemic, but poorly related to the local density. We hypothesize that the spatial and social structure of wild boar populations may be responsible for this variability of incidence over space. Persistence was highest near the starting point of the epidemic and where initial density was highest. We hypothesize that persistence was favoured by the abundance of young wild boar, itself encouraged by CSF. Our results allow us to propose management measures aimed at limiting CSF persistence.

International audience; In the European Community, epizootics of classical swine fever (CSF) in the wild boar (Sus scrofa) are compulsorily monitored because transmission may occur between wild boars and domestic pigs, causing heavy economic losses to the pork industry. The estimation of incidence in populations of wild boars is generally based on viroprevalence. However, viral isolation becomes rare when the incidence is low because the virus cannot be detected for more than a few weeks following infection. On the contrary, seroprevalence is detectable at low incidence levels, because antibodies can be detected for the lifetime of the infected animal. We thus attempted to analyse the long-term evolution of CSF incidence using serological data. The data came from France, where CSF had been monitored from 1992 to 2002, and where the virus has not been detected since 1997. We assumed that the overall seroprevalence would estimate the proportion of immune wild boars, that seroprevalence in juveniles would approximate incidence and that seroprevalence in different age classes would show the evolution of incidence in a given cohort. Spatial and temporal trends of incidence and seroprevalence were explored using logistic modelling and the spatial trend was analysed using polynomial regression. In 1992, incidence peaked in the northern area. After 1993, incidence decreased but remained the highest in the northern area. After 2000, no seropositive juvenile was observed, suggesting the extinction of the epizootic. Our results support the reliability of serological monitoring since it allowed a longer detection of viral transmission and provided more information on the spatio-temporal evolution of incidence than did viral isolation. We advocate that the highest persistence of infection in northeastern France is not independent from infection persistence in Reinland-Pfalz (Germany). Such persistence may be due to favourable local conditions and/or the social organisation of wild boars.

On 28 August 2004 (week 35), two suspected clinical cases of West Nile virus infection in horses were identified by veterinarians in Saintes-Maries de la Mer, in the Camargue region of southeastern France

Background The understanding of host-parasite systems in wildlife is of increasing interest in relation to the risk of emerging diseases in livestock and humans. In this respect, many efforts have been dedicated to controlling classical swine fever (CSF) in the European Wild Boar. But CSF eradication has not always been achieved even though vaccination has been implemented at a large-scale. Piglets have been assumed to be the main cause of CSF persistence in the wild since they appeared to be more often infected and less often immune than older animals. However, this assumption emerged from laboratory trials or cross-sectional surveys based on the hunting bags. Methodology/Principal Findings In the present paper we conducted a capture-mark-recapture study in free-ranging wild boar piglets that experienced both CSF infection and vaccination under natural conditions. We used multi-state capture recapture models to estimate the immunization and infection rates, and their variations according to the periods with or without vaccination. According to the model prediction, 80% of the infected piglets did not survive more than two weeks, while the other 20% quickly recovered. The probability of becoming immune did not increase significantly during the summer vaccination sessions, and the proportion of immune piglets was not higher after the autumn vaccination. Conclusions/Significance Given the high lethality of CSF in piglets highlighted in our study, we consider unlikely that piglets could maintain the chain of CSF virus transmission. Our study also revealed the low efficacy of vaccination in piglets in summer and autumn, possibly due to the low palatability of baits to that age class, but also to the competition between baits and alternative food sources. Based on this new information, we discuss the prospects for the improvement of CSF control and the interest of the capture-recapture approach for improving the understanding of wildlife diseases.