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Viral control of mitochondrial quality and content has emerged as an important mechanism for counteracting the host response to virus infection. Despite the knowledge of this crucial function of some viruses, little is known about how herpesviruses regulate mitochondrial homeostasis during infection. Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) is an oncogenic virus causally related to AIDS-associated malignancies. Here, we show that HHV-8-encoded viral interferon regulatory factor 1 (vIRF-1) promotes mitochondrial clearance by activating mitophagy to support virus replication. Genetic interference with vIRF-1 expression or targeting to the mitochondria inhibits HHV-8 replication-induced mitophagy and leads to an accumulation of mitochondria. Moreover, vIRF-1 binds directly to a mitophagy receptor, NIX, on the mitochondria and activates NIX-mediated mitophagy to promote mitochondrial clearance. Genetic and pharmacological interruption of vIRF-1/NIX-activated mitophagy inhibits HHV-8 productive replication. Our findings uncover an essential role of vIRF-1 in mitophagy activation and promotion of HHV-8 lytic replication via this mechanism.

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) is causally related to human malignancies. HHV-8 latent viral FLICE-inhibitory protein (vFLIP) is a viral oncoprotein that is linked to pathogenesis, but how its expression is regulated is largely unknown. In an attempt to understand the role of the mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS) adaptor in HHV-8 infection, we discovered that vFLIP expression was post-translationally up-regulated by the MAVS signaling complex on peroxisomes. Furthermore, we demonstrated that vFLIP could be targeted to the peroxisomes, where it was oncogenically active, in a PEX19-dependent manner. Targeted disruption of vFLIP and MAVS interaction resulted in a decrease in vFLIP expression and selectively promoted death of latently HHV-8-infected cells, providing therapeutic potential for treating HHV-8 diseases. Collectively, our experimental results suggest novel involvement of peroxisomes and MAVS in the stabilization of vFLIP and thereby in the establishment or maintenance of HHV-8 latency and associated pathogenesis., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) encodes four viral interferon regulatory factors (vIRF-1 to -4) that likely function to suppress innate immune and cellular stress responses through inhibitory interactions with various cellular proteins involved in these activities. It is notable that vIRF-1 and -4 have been reported to interact with the deubiquitinase ubiquitin-specific protease 7 (USP7), substrates of which include p53 and the p53-targeting and -destabilizing ubiquitin E3 ligase MDM2. Structural studies of vIRF-1 and vIRF-4 USP7 binding sequences in association with USP7 have been reported; both involve interactions with N-terminal-domain residues of USP7 via EGPS and ASTS motifs in vIRF-1 and vIRF-4, respectively, but vIRF-4 residues also contact the catalytic site. However, the biological activities of vIRF-1 and vIRF-4 via USP7 interactions are unknown. Here, we report that vIRF-3, which is latently, as well as lytically, expressed in HHV-8-infected primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) cells, also interacts with USP7-via duplicated EGPS motifs-and that this interaction is important for PEL cell growth and viability. The interaction also contributes to suppression of productive virus replication by vIRF-3, which we identify here. We further show that vIRF-1, which is expressed at low levels in PEL latency, promotes latent PEL cell viability and that this activity and vIRF-1-promoted productive replication (reported previously) involve EGPS motif-mediated USP7 targeting by vIRF-1. This study is the first to identify latent and lytic functions of vIRF-1 and vIRF-3, respectively, and to address the biological activities of these vIRFs through their interactions with USP7. IMPORTANCE HHV-8 is associated with Kaposi's sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman's disease; both latent and lytic viral functions are believed to contribute. Viral interferon regulatory factors specified by HHV-8 are thought to be critically important for successful productive replication through suppression of innate immune and stress responses triggered by the lytic cycle. Latently expressed vIRF-3 contributes significantly to PEL cell survival. Here, we identify ubiquitin-specific protease 7 (USP7) deubiquitinase targeting by vIRF-3 (in addition to previously reported USP7 binding by vIRF-1 and vIRF-4); the importance of vIRF-1 and vIRF-3 interactions with USP7 for latent PEL cell growth and viability; and the positive and negative contributions, respectively, of USP7 targeting by vIRF-1 and vIRF-3 to HHV-8 productive replication. This is the first report of the biological importance of vIRF-1 in PEL cell latency, the modulation of productive replication by vIRF-3, and the contributions of vIRF-USP7 interactions to HHV-8 biology., (Copyright © 2018 American Society for Microbiology.)

Expression of Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus vFLIP, a potent activator of NFkB signaling, promotes latency. Inhibition of NFkB signaling promotes lytic reactivation. We previously reported that lytic inducer, RTA, inhibits vFLIP induced NFkB signaling by inducing the degradation of vFLIP via the proteasome. Here we report that the cellular ubiquitin ligase, Itch, is required for RTA induced degradation of vFLIP. Expression of either Itch targeting shRNA or a dominant negative mutant of the ubiquitin ligase both increased the stability of vFLIP in the presence of RTA. Itch potently ubiquitinated vFLIP in vivo and in vitro. We provide evidence for interaction between RTA, vFLIP and Itch and we identified an RTA resistant mutant of vFLIP that is unable to interact with Itch. These observations contribute to our understanding of how RTA counteracts the activities of vFLIP., Competing Interests: The authors indicate no potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: Mitochondrial lipid raft-like microdomains, experimentally also termed mitochondrial detergent-resistant membrane fractions (mDRM), play a role as platforms for recruiting signaling molecules involved in antiviral responses such as apoptosis and innate immunity. Viruses can modulate mitochondrial functions for their own survival and replication. However, viral regulation of the antiviral responses via mDRM remains incompletely understood. Here, we report that human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) gene product viral interferon regulatory factor 1 (vIRF-1) is targeted to mDRM during virus replication and negatively regulates the mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS)-mediated antiviral responses. The N-terminal region of vIRF-1 interacts directly with membrane lipids, including cardiolipin. In addition, a GxRP motif within the N terminus of vIRF-1, conserved in the mDRM-targeting region of mitochondrial proteins, including PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) and MAVS, was found to be important for vIRF-1 association with mitochondria. Furthermore, MAVS, which has the potential to promote vIRF-1 targeting to mDRM possibly by inducing cardiolipin exposure on the outer membrane of mitochondria, interacts with vIRF-1, which, in turn, inhibits MAVS-mediated antiviral signaling. Consistent with these results, vIRF-1 targeting to mDRM contributes to promotion of HHV-8 productive replication and inhibition of associated apoptosis. Combined, our results suggest novel molecular mechanisms for negative-feedback regulation of MAVS by vIRF-1 during virus replication., Importance: Successful virus replication is in large part achieved by the ability of viruses to counteract apoptosis and innate immune responses elicited by infection of host cells. Recently, mitochondria have emerged to play a central role in antiviral signaling. In particular, mitochondrial lipid raft-like microdomains appear to function as platforms in cell apoptosis signaling. However, viral regulation of antiviral signaling through the mitochondrial microdomains remains incompletely understood. The present study demonstrates that HHV-8-encoded vIRF-1 targets to the mitochondrial detergent-resistant microdomains via direct interaction with cardiolipin and inhibits MAVS protein-mediated apoptosis and type I interferon gene expression in a negative-feedback manner, thus promoting HHV-8 productive replication. These results suggest that vIRF-1 is the first example of a viral protein to inhibit mitochondrial antiviral signaling through lipid raft-like microdomains., (Copyright © 2015, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.)

Viral replication efficiency is in large part governed by the ability of viruses to counteract pro-apoptotic signals induced by infection of host cells. For HHV-8, viral interferon regulatory factor-1 (vIRF-1) contributes to this process in part via inhibitory interactions with BH3-only protein (BOP) Bim, recently identified as an interaction partner of vIRF-1. Here we recognize that the Bim-binding domain (BBD) of vIRF-1 resembles a region (BH3-B) of Bid, another BOP, which interacts intramolecularly with the functional BH3 domain of Bid to inhibit it pro-apoptotic activity. Indeed, vIRF-1 was found to target Bid in addition to Bim and to interact, via its BBD region, with the BH3 domain of each. In functional assays, BBD could substitute for BH3-B in the context of Bid, to suppress Bid-induced apoptosis in a BH3-binding-dependent manner, and vIRF-1 was able to protect transfected cells from apoptosis induced by Bid. While vIRF-1 can mediate nuclear sequestration of Bim, this was not the case for Bid, and inhibition of Bid and Bim by vIRF-1 could occur independently of nuclear localization of the viral protein. Consistent with this finding, direct BBD-dependent inactivation by vIRF-1 of Bid-induced mitochondrial permeabilization was demonstrable in vitro and isolated BBD sequences were also active in this assay. In addition to Bim and Bid BH3 domains, BH3s of BOPs Bik, Bmf, Hrk, and Noxa also were found to bind BBD, while those of both pro- and anti-apoptotic multi-BH domain Bcl-2 proteins were not. Finally, the significance of Bid to virus replication was demonstrated via Bid-depletion in HHV-8 infected cells, which enhanced virus production. Together, our data demonstrate and characterize BH3 targeting and associated inhibition of BOP pro-apoptotic activity by vIRF-1 via Bid BH3-B mimicry, identifying a novel mechanism of viral evasion from host cell defenses.

Viral replication efficiency is in large part governed by the ability of viruses to counteract pro-apoptotic signals induced by infection of the host cell. Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) uses several strategies to block the host's innate antiviral defenses via interference with interferon and apoptotic signaling. Contributors include the four viral interferon regulatory factors (vIRFs 1-4), which function in dominant negative fashion to block cellular IRF activities in addition to targeting IRF signaling-induced proteins such as p53 and inhibiting other inducers of apoptosis such as TGFbeta receptor-activated Smad transcription factors. Here we identify direct targeting by vIRF-1 of BH3-only pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim, a key negative regulator of HHV-8 replication, to effect its inactivation via nuclear translocation. vIRF-1-mediated relocalization of Bim was identified in transfected cells, by both immunofluorescence assay and western analysis of fractionated cell extracts. Also, co-localization of vIRF-1 and Bim was detected in nuclei of lytically infected endothelial cells. In vitro co-precipitation assays using purified vIRF-1 and Bim revealed direct interaction between the proteins, and Bim-binding residues of vIRF-1 were mapped by deletion and point mutagenesis. Generation and experimental utilization of Bim-refractory vIRF-1 variants revealed the importance of vIRF-1:Bim interaction, specifically, in pro-replication and anti-apoptotic activity of vIRF-1. Furthermore, blocking of the interaction with cell-permeable peptide corresponding to the Bim-binding region of vIRF-1 confirmed the relevance of vIRF-1:Bim association to vIRF-1 pro-replication activity. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an IRF protein that interacts with a Bcl-2 family member and of nuclear sequestration of Bim or any other member of the family as a means of inactivation. The data presented reveal a novel mechanism utilized by a virus to control replication-induced apoptosis and suggest that inhibitory targeting of vIRF-1:Bim interaction may provide an effective antiviral strategy.

The human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) viral G protein-coupled receptor (vGPCR) has been implicated in virus-associated disease pathogenesis due principally to its ability to induce the production of angiogenic cytokines involved in this process. However, the role of the vGPCR in normal virus biology is understudied and remains unknown. Here we provide evidence from vGPCR gene knockout and depletion experiments that vGPCR is a positive regulator of HHV-8 productive replication and, through experimental utilization of Galpha-coupling variants of vGPCR, that signaling via Galpha(q) activation and targeted mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways is of particular relevance to this activity.

Recently, viruses have been shown to regulate selective autophagy for productive infections. For instance, human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), also known as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), activates selective autophagy of mitochondria, termed mitophagy, thereby inhibiting antiviral innate immune responses during lytic infection in host cells. We previously demonstrated that HHV-8 viral interferon regulatory factor 1 (vIRF-1) plays a crucial role in lytic replication-activated mitophagy by interacting with cellular mitophagic proteins, including NIX and TUFM. However, the precise molecular mechanisms by which these interactions lead to mitophagy activation remain to be determined. Here, we show that vIRF-1 binds directly to mammalian autophagy-related gene 8 (ATG8) proteins, preferentially GABARAPL1 in infected cells, in an LC3-interacting region (LIR)-independent manner. Accordingly, we identified key residues in vIRF-1 and GABARAPL1 required for mutual interaction and demonstrated that the interaction is essential for mitophagy activation and HHV-8 productive replication. Interestingly, the mitophagy receptor NIX promotes vIRF-1-GABARAPL1 interaction, and NIX/vIRF-1-induced mitophagy is significantly inhibited in GABARAPL1-deficient cells. Moreover, a vIRF-1 variant defective in GABARAPL1 binding substantially loses the ability to induce vIRF-1/NIX-induced mitophagy. These results suggest that NIX supports vIRF-1 activity as a mitophagy mediator. In addition, we found that NIX promotes vIRF-1 aggregation and stabilizes aggregated vIRF-1. Together, these findings indicate that vIRF-1 plays a role as a viral mitophagy mediator that can be activated by a cellular mitophagy receptor. Author summary: In addition to their role in energy metabolism, mitochondria act as platforms for antiviral signaling that leads to apoptosis and type I interferon expression in response to virus infection. However, for their benefit, viruses have evolved strategies to attenuate mitochondria-mediated antiviral signaling, including selective autophagy of mitochondria (termed mitophagy) that eliminates dysfunctional or superfluous mitochondria. We previously demonstrated that mitochondria-localized viral interferon regulatory factor 1 (vIRF-1) plays a role in the activation of mitophagy during human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) via interaction with the mitophagy proteins NIX and TUFM, thereby inhibiting antiviral responses and contributing to productive replication. However, it remains to elucidate the precise molecular mechanisms and regulation of vIRF-1-mediated mitophagy, particularly interactions with the core autophagy machinery. In this report, we discover that vIRF-1 interacts selectively with GABARAPL1 among ATG8 proteins in a non-canonical manner in lytically HHV-8-infected cells, and the mitophagy receptor NIX promotes vIRF-1 oligomerization and interaction with the ATG8 protein. Our results reveal the presence of a functional complex of vIRF-1/NIX/GABARAPL1 for the promotion of mitophagy and also provide the first evidence of the post-translational regulation of viral mitophagic protein by cellular mitophagy receptor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]