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This study analyzes the 100% increase in the minimum wage in the northern border area of Mexico in 2019 and its total, gender, and sector effects on employment and wages. Based on data from the National Occupation and Employment Survey, differences-in-differences and event study design models are estimated to calculate the average and dynamic effects of the policy. The results show that the increase in the minimum wage did not statistically affect the probability of participating in the labor market or of being employed; however, among salaried workers, it did increase the probability of working in the formal sector by 1.38 percentage points, where this effect rises to 2.34 percentage points among women and was non-significant among men. Concerning the mean hourly wage, an increase of 3.27% was observed in formal salaried workers and of 3.56% among women, while no signifi- cant effects were found within informal salaried workers and men. Along the wage distribution, positive average effects were observed for formal wage earners up to the 50th quantile and among informal wage earners up to the 25th quantile. The increase in the minimum wage affected positively and to a greater extent women and low-wage workers. Moreover, since the wage increase was accompanied by other economic policies that appear to have reduced inflation, the results can be interpreted as an upper bound of the positive effects of the minimum wage in crease and in the absence of the other policies, or contexts where only the wage increase occurred, its effects on wages could have been smaller. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effect of a new maximum work hour restriction introduced in South Korea in 2018 that limited maximum working hours from 68 h/week to 52 h/week. I use difference-in-differences analysis with continuous treatment measuring the prevalence of those working longer than 52 h/week prior to the policy change across industry-occupation-education groups. I find that the policy reduces work hours while increasing monthly earnings and hourly wages for male full-time workers. However, I find that the policy does not significantly affect total work hours, total employment, and total worker pay at the industry-occupation-education group level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Official statistics, like research in the field showing a wide differential in the wages between men and women by their work. However, this measurement are based on data that in this elaborations used other factors apart the sex of the workers. This investigation, through a comparison of ordinary and extraordinary wages as well their hours, shows that the gap in less according the variable used, and this differential is not extensive to all occupations or economic sectors. On the other hands, we found some evidence that the differential in wages may be due to the experience or employees and not by your sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of health on wages of Australian workers, with a focus on gender differences and the role of macroeconomic conditions in the effects. Design/methodology/approach: The first 15 waves of the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey are used to estimate a wage model that accounts for the endogeneity of health, unobserved heterogeneity and sample selection bias. Findings: The results show that, after accounting for the endogeneity of health, unobserved heterogeneity and sample selection bias, better health increases wages for Australian male workers, but not for female workers. The results also show that accounting for the endogeneity of health, unobserved heterogeneity and potential sample selection bias is important in estimating the effects of health on wages. In particular, a simple ordinary least squares estimator would underestimate the effect of health on wages for males, while overestimate it for females, and simply addressing the endogeneity of health using instrumental variables could overestimate the effect for both genders. It is also found that the effects of health on wages fall under depressed macroeconomic conditions, perhaps due to reduced job mobility and increased presentism during a recession. Originality/value: This study adds to the international literature on the effects of health on wages by providing empirical evidence from Australia. The model applied to estimate the effects takes advantage of a panel dataset to address the bias resulting potentially from all the sources of the endogeneity of health, unobserved heterogeneity and sample selection. The results indeed show that failing to address these issues would substantially bias the estimated effects of health on wages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Symbolic valuation is an important but overlooked aspect of gendered processes of inequality in the occupation structure. Prior work has largely focused on the material valuation of gendered work, such as how much predominantly-female versus predominantly-male occupations pay. Less research has examined the symbolic valuation of work, such as how prestigious predominantly-female versus predominantly-male occupations are. What research has examined this question has remained inconclusive at best. Drawing on insights into and techniques from the sociology of culture and cognition, this study examines the role of an occupation's gender composition in how Americans judge the prestige of jobs, testing key predictions from theories of gender and status. Using 2012 General Social Survey and federal occupation-level data, it finds evidence for a segregation premium: people view gender-segregated occupations as the most symbolically valuable jobs. Both men and women reward gender-segregated occupations with symbolic value, although there is evidence of a gendered in-group bias in which women in particular see women's work as more prestigious, while men see men's work as more prestigious. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Career interruptions of employees imply important issues for both firms and individuals, including a possibly lower compensation after returning to a job. Different compensation components are explored, as bonus payments frequently complement fixed salaries for many employees, making various channels of lower compensation possible. This paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach: This study is based on a yearly salary survey among a rather homogeneous group of professionals and middle managers from the German chemical sector, which contains detailed information on compensation components next to individual and job characteristics. The incidence and duration of past career interruptions act as the most important independent variables. Mincer-type wage regressions are complemented by estimations on wage increases. Findings: The results show that career interruptions are more related to lower subsequent bonus payments than they are to fixed salaries. Furthermore, interruptions caused by unemployment are associated with higher interruption pay gaps than those resulting from other reasons such as parental leave. The results even hint for catch-up effects following parental leave with regard to higher wage increases compared to individuals without interruptions. Career interruptions are more prevalent for female managers offering an explanation for a considerable part of gender pay gaps. Wage losses after career interruptions are more pronounced for male employees than they are for females, though. Originality/value: This study extents the literature by disentangling the relation of career interruptions and different compensation components, bonus payments next to fixed salaries in particular. The role of interruption type and gender are also taken into account so that the paper deepens the understanding of the role of past career interruptions for employees' remuneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This experiment tested the effect of occupational status on occupational aspirations. • Occupational aspirations in children (ages 7–11) are influenced by occupational status. • There is no gender difference in the effect of status on occupational aspirations. • Self-perceptions (in trend) mediated relationship between gender and occupational values. In many countries, labor markets are still highly gender segregated, with very few men working in communal occupations such as nursing. Because occupational aspirations start to develop during early childhood, it seems crucial to foster our understanding of which factors affect occupational aspirations during this period. Earlier correlational research showed that the status of occupations seems to be one important factor. Therefore, in the current work, we experimentally tested the effect of two dimensions of status (i.e., salary and power) on children's occupational aspirations and examined its interaction with child gender. We also tested the relationship among gender, self-perceptions, and occupational values. Using a 2 (Salary: high vs. low) × 2 (Power: high vs. low) within-participants design (N = 127 [59 boys and 68 girls], M age = 9.37 years, SD = 0.50) with child gender as a between-participants factor, we show positive main effects of both salary and power on children's occupational aspirations but no interaction with gender. Correlational analyses show preliminary evidence for the mediating role of agentic self-perceptions in the relationship between gender and occupational values related to status. Thus, we provide evidence for the causal effect of occupational status on children's occupational aspirations but show experimentally that this is independent of child gender. Interestingly, the correlational analyses indicate that gender norms might play a role given that boys in trend reported stronger agentic self-perceptions, which then were associated with a stronger desire to pursue high-status occupations. Implications for early interventions to reduce occupational gender segregation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. To determine the number and type of US workers taking maternity or paternity leave. Methods. We created a publicly available ecological long-term series for measuring parental leave from 1994 to 2015 by using the Current Population Survey, which interviews about 60 000 randomly selected households monthly. Results. The average month from 1994 to 2015 saw 273 000 women and 13 000 men on maternity or paternity leave. Maternity leave rates per 10 000 births showed no trend over 22 years (mean = 677.6). Paternity figures increased by a factor of 3, but started from a small base (14.7-54.6).We observed no national impact on maternity or paternity leave after implementation of state laws that provided paid leave. About half (51.1%) of employees on maternity or paternity leave during 2015 received paid time off. The typical woman on maternity leave was older, more likely married, more likely non-Hispanic White, and more educated than the typical woman who gave birth. Conclusions. Although the US economy has expanded dramatically since 1994, this improvement does not appear to have translated into more women taking maternity leave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the association between graduation age and earnings among university graduates in Denmark, which is a country with one of the oldest student populations in the world. Exploiting a rich data-set from administrative registers, the current study is able to track labour market career for a longer period of time and to control for more labour market-relevant variables than any previous study of graduation age and earnings. The results show that graduation age has either a slightly positive or an insignificant impact on starting wages within the public sector or a negative impact on starting wages among private sector employees. This applies to both genders, but the differences are stronger among male employees. The analyses of long-term wages reveal a more homogeneous pattern. Mature graduates earn less in all the years investigated. The wage differences are greatest among male graduates employed in private enterprises, and the gap increases throughout their careers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to analyse the gender wage gap in Portugal by applying the counterfactual decomposition method employed by Machado and Mata (2005). In order to obtain a measure for wage discrimination at different quantiles, wage function estimation is based on quantile regression analysis (Koenker and Basset 1978), using datasets from the Inquérito ao Emprego (IELFS - Portuguese Labour Force Survey) of 1998 and 2007. The decomposition of gender wage inequality shows potential wage discrimination by gender due to the differences in the returns of working men's and women's characteristics. This discrimination increases across the whole distribution, for both 1998 and 2007. Although differences in the working men's and women's characteristics declined, the results show empirical evidence of the persistence of the discrimination effect in 2007 - at the same level. In addition, Oaxaca-Blinder's standard decomposition approach, developed in 1973, was applied. The results confirm the average gender wage gap does not reflect the reality observed throughout the wage distribution, inasmuch as it overestimates what happens in lower-level quantiles and underestimates those of the higher levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the incidence and determinants of overeducation in the Belgian private sector. Two different approaches are used to define overeducation by means of data on characteristics of employees and employers. Using the 1995 Structure of Earnings Survey, between 22% and 24% of the workforce is found to be overeducated. Results support the idea that employers view labour market experience as a substitute for formal education. They also show that male workers and people employed in state-owned firms are less affected by overeducation. Further results suggest that the size of the establishment has a very weak (negative) impact on overeducation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approaching women's economic niches and earnings inferiority from the point of view of the ethnic economy literature, this paper introduces new data on women's entrepreneurship. Like ethnic minority employers, who prefer co-ethnic employees, women employers exhibit a hiring preference for women. As it does for ethnic minorities, this hiring preference modestly corrects women's earning inferiority, but it does not reduce industrial niching. Although often conflated, segregation and earnings are two distinct dimensions, not one. Women employers increase demand for women employees, raising their earnings, but women employers do not also reduce gender segregation. Because women are under-represented in entrepreneurship, the corrective effect of women's entrepreneurship on women's earnings is modest but positive. This result also parallels the limited advantage that ethnic employers afford co-ethnics. Therefore, in a technical sense, under-representation of women in entrepreneurship is an unacknowledged cause of women's earnings inferiority. Women's entrepreneurship will not reach parity with men's in the short run. But, in the longer run, women's entrepreneurship has the potential, appreciably if not fully, to reduce women's earnings inferiority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper estimates the returns to education for adult male workers in regular and casual wage employment using Indian national survey data at three points in time spanning almost two decades. Both standard and augmented Mincerian wage equations are estimated using a set of human capital measures and other controls after addressing the issue of potential selection bias. This paper finds that the returns to education are significantly different for the two types of workers—while casual workers face at best flat returns to education, the returns to education for regular workers are positive and U‐shaped with respect to education levels. There is also some evidence of a widening wage gap between regular workers with graduate and primary education that could possibly be a consequence of trade liberalization and other reforms pursued during the 1990s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to evaluate whether undeclared work is the same when conducted by men and women. Conventionally, the view is that such work is always profit-motivated market-like work and that women's undeclared work mirrors their subjugated position in the formal labour market in terms of pay, contract type and sector. Reporting evidence gathered during 861 face-to-face interviews in contemporary England, this paper finds that to represent undeclared work as a profit-motivated market-like endeavour is to read such work through the lens of men's accounts of such work. For women, although some undeclared work is of this variety, the vast majority is conducted for friends, neighbours and kin for reasons associated with redistribution and social capital building and thus more akin to unpaid mutual aid than employment. To unshackle narratives of undeclared work from current market-centred readings, therefore, this paper differentiates between profit-motivated market-like informal employment and undeclared work carried out in a moral economy of paid favours so as to unravel the nature of men's and women's participation in this sphere and explore the implications for understanding women's community engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars writing about community in recent years have been more likely to lament its passing than celebrate its exemplars. What's missing in this recent revival of interest in community is a systematic link with work–family issues and, in particular, an explicit recognition that women's and men's work–family lives have changed dramatically in the post-World War II era. We investigate the consequences of structural shifts in our family and work lives for a sample of elite, managerial women in dual-earner marriages, a population for whom work and family concerns are both immediate and salient. Understanding changing definitions of, and trends in, family and work can provide a useful lens through which we can profitably address recent debates about the decline or resurgence of community and civic society. Our findings suggest that, although conceived differently than in previous decades, family remains central to our respondents’ sense of community and structures their civic engagement. In contrast with previous generations of women, however, work is also important, for defining women's sense of self and community and for offering an alternative venue for community service. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Models of time use need to consider especially the reproductive and productive activities of women and men. For husband-wife families, the breadwinner, one-earner, or complementary-roles model has advantages in terms of efficiency or specialization and stability; however, it is a high-risk model for women and children. The alternate model has been called two-earner, companionship, "new families," or collaborative in the sense of spouses collaborating in the paid and unpaid work needed to provide for and care for the family. Adopting the common metric of time use to study paid and unpaid work, we find that the complementary-roles model remains the most common, and the "double burden" is the second most frequent; how- ever, there is some evidence of change in the direction of shared-roles arrangements, especially for younger couples with children, when both are employed full-time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, this study examines the pattern of early career job mobility and migration in a sample of young male workers. Primary interest lies in the between–job wage change accompanying job transitions as well as the extended time–profile of migrant earnings. When the sample of job transitions is partitioned by education level, contemporaneous returns are found only for workers with twelve or less years of completed schooling. In contrast, highly educated workers demonstrate significant extended returns to migration with the bulk of pecuniary rewards accruing with a lag of nearly two years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article estimates an earnings function among black, Mexican American, and non-Hispanic white male full- time year-round workers from 1972 to 1987, using data from the March 1973, 1978, 1983, and 1988 Current Population Surveys. In addition, it attempts to address the larger question of whether the economic position of minorities has declined, remained the same, or improved over the period 1972 to 1987. Results from the analysis suggest that the economic position of black and Mexican American full-time year-round male workers remained about the same from 1972 to 1987. It was found that non-Hispanic white male workers realized greater marginal returns to their human capital and, therefore, earned more than either black or Mexican American workers in all years (1972 to 1987) covered in this study. Moreover, though the earnings gap declined in the period covered, substantial earnings differentials persisted and failed to mirror the narrowing in human capital among the three ethnic racial groups.

This study provides a preliminary test of Lydall's managerial hierarchy theory, which suggests increased numbers of large firms generate more skewed earnings distributions, resulting in greater overall economic inequality within areal units. Analyses based on 1980 SMSA data indicate increasing numbers of large establishments create greater proportions of affluent managers and slightly more skewed earnings distributions, but only among males. Gender differences in the effect of large firms on earnings distributions are also noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study investigates an important period in the history of equal pay legislation in Canada. In 1967 Bell Canada decided to review its salary classifications for management personnel with the objective of integrating the existing gender-based work hierarchies: the male hierarchy which represented outside employees, and the female hierarchy which represented inside employees. Each employee was given a classification based on experience, education, and management responsibilities. However, in each class the members from the former female hierarchy were marked with an "X"; most of the "X" members were women; and, all "X" members were assigned a lower salary. Elizabeth Kennedy and Patricia Harris, both management employees from the former female hierarchy, challenged the company under the Female Employees Equal Pay Act, 1956, a federal statute which required employers to pay female employees at the same rate as male employees for "identical or substantially identical work" This study chronicles the fight through the courts between these women and the company over a period of eight years, and the outcome of their efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparable worth, or the concept of equal pay for dissimilar jobs of equal value to an employer, has been identified as the civil rights issue of the eighties, is based on the notion that women in traditional female occupations such as nursing make, on average, wages 20 percent lower than men in traditionally male occupations such as truck drivers despite the fact that both jobs are of equal value to the employer. The answer to the question of bearing the cost lies with employers who implement comparable worth. But if pay inequities continue, women will bear the cost.

We propose a new approach to analyzing gender differences in wages. This approach identifies several alternative explanatory mechanisms to account for the sorting of women and men into different types of jobs that offer different levels of reward. Because labor market rewards derive from labor market positions, we study matching processes operating at the micro level that sort workers into existing slots in a given macro-level structure of jobs and associated wages. We focus on the explanation of gender differences in wages at career entry. Analyzing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth collected between 1979 and 1991, we find that at career entry women earn 84 cents for every dollar men earn. Gender differences in worker characteristics account for only about 30 percent of this wage gap: Gender differences in occupational aspirations have the most important effect, accounting for 16 percent of the wage gap, and gender differences in job-related skills and credentials account for about 14 percent of the wage gap. Gender differences in adult family roles have little direct effect. Our analysis further suggests that the external influences of employing organizations and network processes on gender differences in occupational and industrial placement at career entry account for another 42 percent of the wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stolzenberg (1978) has argued that for white male employees the effect of schooling on log-earnings is greater in larger establishments. We replicate Stolzenberg's study using the 1979 Current Population Survey. This survey includes information on establishment size and provides a much larger sample size to work with. Our results do not indicate a positive establishment size/schooling interaction. To the contrary, when Stolzenberg's (1978) model specification is used, our findings suggest that the interaction may be negative. We explore the sources of this discrepancy and are skeptical of the conventional wisdom that returns to schooling increase with establishment size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, Western societies have experienced educational expansion accompanied by an upgrading of skills. The literature provides competing hypotheses on the consequences for educational wage returns — among them are the positional value theory, routine-biased technological change, and the social closure theory. We test these theoretical perspectives empirically on young, male full-time workers in West Germany between 1976 and 2010 in two ideal-type occupational segments using 2.34 million administrative earnings records (Sample of Integrated Labor Market Biographies, SIAB). Our findings show no credential inflation across all levels of education. Instead, the picture in both segments — negative effects of educational expansion on the returns to medium- but not high-level skills — confirms the predictions of routine-biased technological change. Wage premiums for medium-skilled workers differ between segments: the premiums worsen over time in the general segment whereas social-closure mechanisms seem to weaken this negative trend for vocational graduates in the specific segment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]