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This chapter presents research outputs on three governance players: the law, the organisations and a collective look at civil society through epistemic communities and non-government organisations. All three players seem to be holding different shaped balls and rules and hence are poorly coordinated. The chapter points to ways to increase co-ordination and places that burden on the law. The conclusion reached is that the Water Act 2007 should be applied to the entire nation and water supply organisations need a harmonised corporate form. Civil society has played crucial roles in the past but their eye is off the ball at present. There is a need for stronger epistemic communities and NGOs. The chapter compares urban water supply laws and organisations in Australia and China. China was selected as it shows a change in governance process. Driven by acute need, China accepted foreign investment in the water sector and developed individual cities. Of late, China has changed this process and adopted a catchment approach to integrate urban water supply in the context and created an innovative position of Chief of the river.

Recycled water use in urban areas is viewed as one part of the solution to Australia's water shortage. The effectiveness of policies designed to promote recycled water systems depends on the acceptance by the community of the price, colour, odour and salt content of the recycled water. In Australia and other countries, limited research has been conducted that investigates community attitudes to and willingness to pay for recycled water, especially in urban settings. Community acceptance of recycled water and the economic feasibility of such projects have not been widely evaluated, even though the long-term feasibility of many projects is dependent on such information. This paper examines the attitudes of an urban Australian community living at Mawson Lakes in South Australia, to using recycled water for non-potable domestic purposes. Conjoint analysis (CA) was used to evaluate participant's (n=136) preferences for various attributes of recycled water (colour, odour, salt content and price) for various uses (garden watering, toilet flushing and clothes washing). The analysis was used to estimate the respondent's willingness to pay (WTP) for quality increases for each of the attributes. Differences in WTP were investigated according to various demographic variables including income and education. Results indicate that for garden watering having 'low salt levels' is the most important attribute of recycled water, for clothes washing 'colourless' is the most important attribute, and for toilet flushing a 'low price' was the most important attribute. Respondents were willing to pay for increases in the quality of recycled water. The amount they were willing to pay varied depending on applied use and the attribute in question. Respondents were most willing to pay for an increase in quality of recycled water when used for clothes washing (willing to pay Australian dollars (A$) 0.07/cubic meter (m(3)) for removal of colour, A$0.065 per cubic meter for an increase in quality of recycled water from 'salty' to 'low salt,' and A$ 0.06/m(3) for removal of odour (1A$=0.75 US $ and 0.62 euro, August 24, 2005)). Segmentation of the price attribute by demographic sectors reveals that those in the higher income bracket, higher education sector, middle age group, and who are male, had a higher marginal valuation on price. The results of this study provide important information for recycled water retailers and water policy developers, helping achieve greater economic feasibility for future recycled water projects, to the satisfaction of the communities involved.

Up until 1998 Australian Water Authorities have generally delivered a safe drinking water such that it has not been the subject of an inquiry or represented a high priority on the political agenda. No mandatory water quality standards presently exist in Australia, and this has been foreshadowed by the lack of “crisis” events that can focus public convictions and mobilize political resolve. However the 1998 Sydney Water crisis dramatically changed political opinion and was witness to widespread public concern about water quality. The NSW government in response to the crisis established the Sydney Water Inquiry chaired by Peter McClellan, which made a number of recommendations including the strengthening of mandatory regulatory mechanisms governing water quality. Previous to this Inquiry, a 1996 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare report established a number of major insufficiencies in the Australian Water Industry, including the lack of reliable and adequate data on water contaminants. This lack of dependable data severely limits the ability to define the magnitude and complete nature of hazards confronting water consumers, and alone poses a significant unknown and risk to public health. In addition, the Report confirms the inability of voluntary guidelines and the water industry to maintain a high quality water supply for all Australians and satisfactory assure the public that a safety level not unduly contributing to ill health is being implemented and achieved (Australia's Health 1996, pp. 110–113). In contrast, the US Public Health Service prior to the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act 1974 undertook a study of public water systems that was fundamental in forming Congressional support. Many of these reasons such as inadequate standards, insufficient surveillance, poor compliance, and the reemergence of waterborne disease are similar or directly extrapolatable to the present Australian experience. The reasons underlying the justification for uniform legislation and mandatory regulations in the United States are stated as a comparative “goalpost” for what is considered sufficient cause or motive. In the US and generally in environmental regulation the major reason why mandatory regulations are the preferred option in assuring water quality control as opposed to voluntary guidelines is public assurance. Mandatory laws ensure that the environmental objectives and goals of the community are being addressed. Other key reasons, in addition to the past failures of a system based on voluntary guidelines are: (A) public health and safety, (B) transaction costs under represent external costs, and these external costs are borne by others in society, (C) the failure of monopoly markets, (D) reliable information dissemination critical for public knowledge and decision-making, and (E) inadequacies of common law negligence. A number of federal agencies in Australia presently initiate mandatory regulation of risks at levels similar or more stringent than that associated with water contaminants. A brief history of the recent reforms in the Australian water industry is reviewed in combination with the above reasons, to determine how the context of the restructured industry may add further to fundamental pressures. Central to this reform process has been the Hilmer Report and the corporatization of water utilities, which has among a number of initiatives endorsed the adoption of greater economic accountability. Lastly, in conjunction with this investigation the paper posits a mandatory regulatory system based on universal public health values, economic feasibility, rationale decision-making, and transparency of process for all Australians.

Australia has a high level of urbanisation by world standards and the state of South Australia has one of the most concentrated settlement patterns in Australia. Rapid population growth and a drought ending in 2010 have placed increased pressure on urban water resources. Addressing this issue requires that we consider a diverse portfolio of water supply options for non-potable uses. South Australia actually leads the nation in alternative non-potable water sources, with stormwater capture and reuse, wastewater recycling and rainwater tank ownership. However, past studies have identified public health concerns and a lack of public acceptance as major challenges in implementing water reuse strategies. This paper is based on an internet survey of the communities residing in the periphery of the city of Adelaide in South Australia and about their attitudes and intentions to use treated stormwater for various non-potable uses. We found that respondents’ emotions and perceptions of health risks regarding the use of treated stormwater were closely related to the proximity of the end use to human contact. In terms of the quality attributes, colour, odour and salt levels were all considered important, but odour was the most important for all potential uses, except washing cars. The quality preferences were also closely related to the proximity of the end use to human contact.

PhD Doctorate Sustainable development is the modern rhetoric to guide environmental or natural resourcesmanagement. There are many ways to do this and one concern the wider utilization ofeconomic instruments, such as taxes or levies. Although such levies are becoming commonin Australia and worldwide, the role of the taxes or levies is still limited. In many cases,these taxes/levies -although environmentally related- have a fiscal rather than a purelyenvironmental motive, for example, the Natural Resources Management (NRM) Levy inSouth Australia.In South Australia, under the NRM Act 2004, all property owners are required to pay theNRM levy. Local governments collect the levy and distribute it to the relevant NRM board.The NRM boards have selected to calculate the levy on the basis of property value or simplyapplied a flat rate. The percentage of property value or the amount of the flat rate can varyamongst local government areas.How a tax or levy is designed should be determined by its ultimate purpose. Taxes or leviesfor fiscal and/or redistributive reasons should be designed in a way securing stable inflow ofrevenues, such as, levying on the values of property. However, this approach is often insharp contrast with the goal of environmental taxes or levies which aim to change resourceconsumption behaviour.This study evaluates the NRM levy policy in South Australia using one NRM region andfocussing on the urban community. The justification of this research is that few analyses ofthe effectiveness of environmental taxes or levies have ever been carried out, although theimplementation of these measures has increased significantly during the last decades. Thereare fewer studies analysing the impacts of the tax or levy base method. This is the first studyon this NRM levy policy from the perspective of the urban community who actually pay it.This study employed the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein 1980) to examinethe relationships between community attitudes to the levy policy and water consumption behaviour. Data was collected through a web-based survey with 770 respondents whoanswered 59 questions. The key findings show that governments are perceived to have themain responsibility for water resources management by respondents. However, there is hugeinformation void towards the NRM levy policy. Community has few complaints about thelevy level but strongly prefers to have a levy calculated on the volume of water consumed.Respondents also indicated that they would use less water if the levy were calculated on thevolume of water consumed.The study makes contributions to relevant theory and policy analysis. Theoretically, theresults show that the theory of reasoned action has limited strength in explaining the presentresearch context. Practically, the study provides recommendations for policymakers andpractitioners in South Australia, other Australian States, and internationally. The clearimplications of the results suggest that if a tax or levy aims to change water consumptionbehaviour then it should be based on the volume of water consumed not on property value.

The use of recycled water is being promoted through policy in many parts of the world with the aim of achieving sustainable water management. However there are some major barriers to the success of recycled water use policies and their instruments, in particular for potable reuse schemes. One of these barriers can be a lack of community support. Despite the critical nature of community attitudes to recycled water to the success of projects, they are often little understood. Further information is required to ensure the successful implementation of recycled water policy and to ensure sustainable management of water resources is achieved. The aim of this paper is to establish the key components of community satisfaction with recycled water. This was investigated through a case study of the Mawson Lakes population in South Australia, where recycled water is used for non-potable purposes through a dual water supply system (the recycled water system). This paper reports results from a survey of 162 Mawson Lakes residents. A structural equation model (SEM) was developed and tested to explain and predict components of community satisfaction with recycled water use (for non-potable use) through the dual water supply system. Results indicate the components of satisfaction with recycled water use were an individual's positive perception of: the Water Authority's communication, trust in the Water Authority, fairness in the recycled water system's implementation, quality of the recycled water, financial value of the recycled water system, and risk associated with recycled water use (negative relationship). The results of this study have positive implications for the future management and implementation of recycled water projects in particular through dual water supply systems. The results indicate to water authorities and water policy developers guiding principles for community consultation with regards to the management of recycled water projects. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Issues concerning dam safety and equitable sharing of catchment run-off are receiving more attention throughout the world. This paper assesses these matters in the context of Australia, and the need for policy responses. Landholders often overlook the common law obligation to review/design dams to current standards because of high costs, leaving them vulnerable to litigation if their dam fails. The paper reports on an innovative spillway design/review procedure, applicable to southeast Australia, but transferable to any region worldwide. Dam safety policy models and guidelines derived from international best practice are linked to the procedure and intended to aid government decision-making. The procedure minimises costs to landholders and provides an acceptable level of safety assurance to downstream communities. Also discussed are recent surveys testing community attitudes to the procedure and implemented dam safety and water allocation policies. These further guide any government wanting to implement this'integrated engineering and community partnerships'approach to preventing potential disasters due to private dam failure and achieving sustainable and safe water storage and use.

Presently in Australia there are no mandatory drinking water standards. Here we argue that the risk associated with drinking water in Australia is of a dimension discernible to warrant mandatory regulations. The catchments that supply the major metropolitan areas of Sydney and Adelaide, and the groundwater for the city of Perth have been seriously compromised by the encroachment of development and activities. Melbourne in the past has generally relied on a closed catchment reservoir system; however, population growth in the near future will sequester the full online operation of additional reservoirs, which have multiple land use catchments. In addition to the current landscape circumstances, the management of a water system in itself proposes significant issues of risk. Two critical assumptions that are unique to a mass medium substance like water and dramatically alter the appraisal of risk are: (1) very large numbers of people are potentially exposed, and (2) small changes in contaminant levels may have adverse population outcomes. It is also known that water reticulation systems frequently suffer from contamination problems caused solely by the distribution system, and optimal management of these facilities would best be served by statutory protected transparency and dedicated water quality programs. In 1979, an Australian parliamentary committee stated that an "uncontaminated water supply is" a "basic requirement for the obtainment of good health"; however, recent surveys of Australian water systems show many are not meeting basic water quality criteria, and many communities are not receiving regular monitoring or testing as required by government authorized Australian drinking water guidelines. Exacerbating this situation is the lack of reporting and statutory endorsed standardized procedures to ensure information is properly and promptly recorded and that data are centralized for maximum benefit. The evaluation of risk associated with drinking water in Australia is often hampered by inadequate or incomplete data. Lastly, regional and rural water supplies face a vast array of contemporary problems and experiences that include widespread usage of pesticides and agricultural chemicals. In recent years, the Darling River has experienced the worst algal bloom known to man, and this river system not only supplies a number of regional and rural towns with water, but eventually connects with the River Murray, which supplies the State of South Australia with approximately 50% of its water requirements.