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Automated driving systems are deployed on public roads with little empirical support for the dominant justifications of enhanced safety and enhanced productivity. Furthermore, development of automated driving systems has been piecemeal rather than systematic while research on driver-automation interaction has relied on individual analysis of accidents and on observational studies of driving behavior in a simulator or on the road. In this paper, we apply Work Domain Analysis to develop a more systematic and comprehensive model of automated driving. We use a strategy of layering the driving automation onto the resulting Abstraction-Decomposition Space for manual driving to mimic the existing design strategy of introducing automation to take over driving functions previously the responsibility of the human driver. Our analysis shows that automation does not unequivocally supports dominant driving values. Furthermore, our analysis revealed subtle interdependencies between human and technological functions. We conclude that an Abstraction Decomposition Space offers a systematic view of driver-automation interaction that can suggest new insights for automation design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and cognitive modelling, unmanned aircraft are expected to act as human-like wingmen in the near future. For fluent and effective manned–unmanned teaming, synthetic wingmen must be able to account for and adapt to their partners' intent with little or no communication. To enable such abilities, it becomes crucial to identify the requirements that makes intent explainable to synthetic wingmen, necessitating approaches to describe and analyse intent from a human-centric perspective. To address this issue, this paper reports on findings from using Work Domain Analysis to design and analyse models of situated intent with six levels of cognitive control (frames, effects, values, generic, implementations, and physical). Through a literature review and seven subject matter expert interviews, a synthesized model was designed to represent fighter pilots' intent in a manned–unmanned teaming scenario. Using the synthesized model as the context, a transfer of control and a link loss situation were further described and analysed. Experiences show that Work Domain Analysis can provide a practical and applicable means to model situated intent, particularly since designed models can be re-utilised to model intent in similar situations. Furthermore, the model analyses show the importance of accounting for fighter pilots' adopted frames since small variations of the framing of the situations can propagate throughout the model resulting in conflicting or inconsistent intent. The paper concludes that synthetic wingmen must be able to reason about all six levels of cognitive control, requiring a more holistic approach to make intent explainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work has been to propose a framework that will aid governments with the development of more coherent and effective infrastructure planning and resilience policies through a system-of-systems approach that is grounded in theory for complex sociotechnical systems. The framework has been developed by using a work domain analysis (WDA). The WDA consists of an abstraction hierarchy analysis and a part-whole decomposition. Together, the abstraction hierarchy and the part-whole description form the abstraction-decomposition space (ADS) for which the system constraints apply. By imposing constraints, the WDA promotes design for adaptation where actors within the system are allowed to adapt their behaviour as they find appropriate without violating the system’s constraints. The proposed ADS consists of five levels of abstraction and four levels of decomposition. By applying the ADS, it will aid decision making related to the overall purposes of the critical infrastructure system, the values and priority measures that are used to assess the system’s progress towards the functional purposes, as well as formulation of infrastructure needs that are necessary to achieve the functional purposes. The framework is formative in the sense that it reveals how work can be done in the critical infrastructure system. This is important because it is not feasible to prescribe, describe and risk assess all possibilities for action that are available in complex sociotechnical systems, especially when dealing with unforeseen events. Future research should focus on finding science-based yet useful in practice ways for establishing values and priority measures that encompass sustainability issues and resilience standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weaning patients from ventilation in intensive care units (ICU) is a complex task. There is a growing desire to build decision-support tools to help clinicians during this process, especially those employing Artificial Intelligence (AI). However, tools built for this purpose should fit within and ideally improve the current work environment, to ensure they can successfully integrate into clinical practice. To do so, it is important to identify areas where decision-support tools may aid clinicians, and associated design requirements for such tools. This study analysed the work context surrounding the weaning process from mechanical ventilation in ICU environments, via cognitive task and work domain analyses. In doing so, both what cognitive processes clinicians perform during weaning, and the constraints and affordances of the work environment itself, were described. This study found a number of weaning process tasks where decision-support tools may prove beneficial, and from these a set of contextual design requirements were created. This work benefits researchers interested in creating human-centred decision-support tools for mechanical ventilation that are sensitive to the wider work system. • An analysis of the work context surrounding weaning ICU patients from mechanical ventilation. • Identification of several areas where decision-support tools could aid in the weaning process. • A set of contextual design requirements for decision-support tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While several competency frameworks have been proposed for Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE) practitioners, these are not commonly based on structured analyses. The aim of this research was to develop a sociotechnical systems model of the HFE practitioner role in Australia and identify the competencies required to fulfil the role. Study One applied the Work Domain Analysis phase of cognitive work analysis (CWA) to model the HFE practitioner role. Model refinement was undertaken with seven subject matter experts. In Study Two, the model was used to elicit the competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities, other characteristics) required for successful performance, via a survey of 28 HFE practitioners. Most competencies related to skills (i.e. communication skills) and knowledge (i.e. domain knowledge). Gaps in competencies were also identified, linked to a lack of HFE education pathways in Australia. The findings have practical utility for designing HFE practitioner roles and educational programs. Practitioner summary: Cognitive work analysis provided a structured analysis of the role of the Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE) practitioner and to support the identification of competencies. The results suggest that HFE practitioners are generalists rather than specialists and have implications for the job design and education of HFE practitioners. Abbreviations: BCPE: board of certification in professional ergonomics; CIEHF: chartered institute of ergonomics and human factors; CWA: cognitive work analysis; HFE: human factors and ergonomics; HFESA: human factors and ergonomics society of Australia; IEA: International Ergonomics Association; KSAO: knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics; O*NET: occupation information network; SME: subject matter expert; SRK: skills, rules, knowledge; UK: United Kingdom; USA: United States of America; WDA: work domain analysis [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isolated caregivers in remote environments frequently request medical advice or decision support from distant experts. Among the multiple difficulties arising from this configuration, exchanging timely and pertinent information under pressure between the two parties poses a considerable challenge. Cognitive Work Analysis and notably the Turing Machine Task Analysis (TMTA) method that enables task processing simulation represent a methodological framework that can guide the specification of remote assistance systems. Within this perspective, TMTA was used to specify assistance functions within a case study of acute abdominal pain occurring on a remote location. Using previous studies and medical knowledge, a work domain analysis of acute abdominal pain was conducted. Based on this analysis, a Turing machine state space was formalized. Applying this method provides two main outcomes helping specify medical assistance functions: a global architecture of medical assistance for isolated caregivers and guidance to define the kind of assistance functions that could be implemented, notably owing to the simulation of Turing machine scenarios. Associated with the abstraction hierarchy technique, the Turing machine simulation process provides a model of the dynamics of interaction between agents and work domain within the framework of adaptive assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To gain a deeper understanding of the information requirements of clinicians conducting neonatal resuscitation in the first 10 min after birth. Background: During the resuscitation of a newborn infant in the first minutes after birth, clinicians must monitor crucial physiological adjustments that are relatively unobservable, unpredictable, and highly variable. Clinicians' access to information regarding the physiological status of the infant is also crucial to determining which interventions are most appropriate. To design displays to support clinicians during newborn resuscitation, we must first carefully consider the information requirements. Methods: We conducted a work domain analysis (WDA) for the neonatal transition in the first 10 min after birth. We split the work domain into two 'subdomains'; the physiology of the neonatal transition, and the clinical resources supporting the neonatal transition. A WDA can reveal information requirements that are not yet supported by resources. Results: The physiological WDA acted as a conceptual tool to model the exact processes and functions that clinicians must monitor and potentially support during the neonatal transition. Importantly, the clinical resources WDA revealed several capabilities and limitations of the physical objects in the work domain—ultimately revealing which physiological functions currently have no existing sensor to provide clinicians with information regarding their status. Conclusion: We propose two potential approaches to improving the clinician's information environment: (1) developing new sensors for the information we lack, and (2) employing principles of ecological interface design to present currently available information to the clinician in a more effective way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryptocurrencies are receiving significant attention owing to their volatility, affiliation with criminal activities and perceived role in money laundering. Traditional anti-money laundering enforcement techniques are proving ineffective due to a lack of a body of knowledge about the cryptocurrency system and the continued use of traditional approaches to disruption. This study presents a first-of-its-kind systems model of the cryptolaundering system. The authors applied Work Domain Analysis (WDA) to describe the functioning of the cryptolaundering sociotechnical system using the unique language and perspective of cryptolaunderers. The resulting WDA abstraction hierarchy demonstrates the difference between cryptolaundering and traditional money laundering efforts. Cryptolaunderers operate outside of the traditional financial system relying primarily on unregistered laundering services and employ cyber tradecraft methods while circumventing regulatory and enforcement efforts. The WDA model aided with the understanding of cryptocurrency technologies, identifies avenues for intervention in cryptolaundering activities, and provides a basis for expanding anti-cryptolaundering laws and regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following strict "lockdown" restrictions designed to control the spread of the COVID‐19 virus, many jurisdictions are now engaged in a process of easing restrictions in an attempt to stimulate economic and social activity while continuing to suppress virus transmission. This is challenging and complex, and in several regions, new outbreaks have emerged. We argue that systems Human Factors and Ergonomics methods can assist in understanding and optimizing the return from lockdown. To demonstrate, we used work domain analysis to develop an abstraction hierarchy model of a generic "return from lockdown restrictions" system. The model was assessed to identify (a) issues preventing a successful return from lockdown; and (b) leverage points that could be exploited to optimize future processes. The findings show that the aim of continuing to suppress virus transmission conflicts with the aims of returning to pre‐virus economic and social activity levels. As a result, many functions act against each other, ensuring that the system cannot optimally achieve all three of its primary aims. Potential leverage points include modifying the goals and rules of the system and enhancing communications and feedback. Specifically, it is argued that moderating economic aims and modifying how social and community activities are undertaken will result in longer term suppression of the virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are concerns that Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) could pose an existential threat to humanity; however, as AGI does not yet exist it is difficult to prospectively identify risks and develop requisite controls. We applied the Work Domain Analysis Broken Nodes (WDA-BN) and Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork-Broken Links (EAST-BL) methods to identify potential risks in a future 'envisioned world' AGI-based uncrewed combat aerial vehicle system. The findings suggest five main categories of risk in this context: sub-optimal performance risks, goal alignment risks, super-intelligence risks, over-control risks, and enfeeblement risks. Two of these categories, goal alignment risks and super-intelligence risks, have not previously been encountered or dealt with in conventional safety management systems. Whereas most of the identified sub-optimal performance risks can be managed through existing defence design lifecycle processes, we propose that work is required to develop controls to manage the other risks identified. These include controls on AGI developers, controls within the AGI itself, and broader sociotechnical system controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to cast users of railway level crossings as flexible and adaptive decision-makers, and to apply a cognitive systems engineering approach to discover new behaviour-based insights for improving safety. Collisions between trains and road vehicles at railway level crossings/grade crossings remain a global issue. It is still far from apparent why drivers undertake some of the behaviours that lead to collisions, and there remains considerable justification for continuing to explore this issue with novel methods and approaches. In this study, 220 level crossing encounters by 22 car drivers were subject to analysis. Concurrent verbal protocols provided by drivers as they drove an instrumented vehicle around a pre-defined route were subject to content analysis and mapped onto Rasmussen's Abstraction Decomposition Space. Three key results emerged. First, when they realise they are in a crossing environment, drivers' natural tendencies are to look for trains (even if not required), slow down (again, even if not required), and for their behaviour to be shaped by a wide variety of constraints and affordances (some, but not all, put there for that purpose by railway authorities). The second result is that expert decision-making in these situations does not describe a trajectory from high-level system purposes to low-level physical objects. Instead, drivers remain at intermediate and lower levels of system abstraction, with many loops and iterations. The final finding is that current level crossing systems are inadvertently constraining some desirable behaviours, affording undesirable ones, and that unexpected system elements are driving behaviour in ways not previously considered. Railway level crossings need to be designed to reveal their functional purpose much more effectively than at present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research is beginning to demonstrate the merits of considering the broader road transport system when attempting to understand and prevent road trauma. This study involved the use of Work Domain Analysis, a systems analysis method, to develop a model of a road transport system based on Queensland, Australia. The model was subsequently used to identify the system wide contributory factors that play a role in road crashes, and to identify aspects of road transport systems that could be exploited when developing road safety interventions. The findings show that there are a set of crash contributory factors relating to the raison d'etre, values, and functions of road transport systems. This suggests that further significant reductions in road trauma will only be achieved through fundamental changes to the road transport system itself. Examples discussed include reducing the emphasis on the use of road transport for economic growth, reducing motor vehicle use and increasing active transport modes, and overhauling road safety strategies.

Netball is a newly professional women’s sport, as such there has been little research conducted investigating performance analysis (PA) in elite netball. The aim of this study was to develop a model of the elite netball performance system to identify the complex relationships among key performance indicators. Eleven elite subject matter experts (SMEs) participated in workshops to produce a systems model of the netball match performance. The model was developed using the work domain analysis (WDA) method. A model of the netball match performance system was produced showing the interrelated objects, processes, functions, values, and purposes involved in elite level netball matches. The model identified the components of elite level netball performance and the interactions and relationships between them. The output of this research has identified novel PA measures including passing and possession measures, measures of cognitive performance, and measures related to physical activity. Netball is a complex sport, involving multiple dynamic and interrelated components. Consequently, there is an opportunity to develop holistic PA measures that focus on interacting components, as opposed to components in isolation.

Work domain analysis (WDA) is used to model the functional structure of sociotechnical systems (STS) through the abstraction hierarchy (AH). By identifying objects, processes, functions and measures that support system purposes, WDA reveals constraints within the system. Traditionally, the AH describes system elements at the lowest level of abstraction as physical objects. Multiple analyses of complex systems reveal that many include objects that exist only at a conceptual level. This paper argues that, by extending the AH to include cognitive objects, the analytical power of WDA is extended, and novel areas of application are enabled. Three case studies are used to demonstrate the role that cognitive objects play within STS. It is concluded that cognitive objects are a valid construct that offer a significant enhancement of WDA and enable its application to some of the world's most pressing problems. Implications for future applications of WDA and the AH are discussed. Practitioner summary: Some sociotechnical systems include memes as part of their functional structure. Three case studies were used to evaluate the utility of introducing cognitive objects alongside physical ones in work domain analysis, the first phase of cognitive work analysis. Including cognitive objects increases the scope and accuracy of work domain analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Netball is a newly professional women's sport, as such there has been little research conducted investigating performance analysis (PA) in elite netball. The aim of this study was to develop a model of the elite netball performance system to identify the complex relationships among key performance indicators. Eleven elite subject matter experts (SMEs) participated in workshops to produce a systems model of the netball match performance. The model was developed using the work domain analysis (WDA) method. A model of the netball match performance system was produced showing the interrelated objects, processes, functions, values, and purposes involved in elite level netball matches. The model identified the components of elite level netball performance and the interactions and relationships between them. The output of this research has identified novel PA measures including passing and possession measures, measures of cognitive performance, and measures related to physical activity. Netball is a complex sport, involving multiple dynamic and interrelated components. Consequently, there is an opportunity to develop holistic PA measures that focus on interacting components, as opposed to components in isolation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) is an appropriate approach in design for high-stakes domains, such as air traffic management (ATM) since it focuses on human expert performance in regular and contingency situations. However, CWA is not suitable for the design of a first-of-a-kind system since there is nothing to analyse before the start of the design process. In 2017, unmanned air traffic management (UTM) for intense drone traffic in cities was such a system. Making things worse, the UTM system has to be in place before the traffic, since it provides basic safety. In this research-through-design study, we present conceptual designing as a bootstrapping approach to CWA in the design of a first-of-a-kind UTM system. In a series of co-design workshops, we identified future services, traffic patterns, and regulations that framed the design of UTM system concepts. They were based on combinations of four basic building blocks: points, lines, planes, and volumes. Concepts of point-based control, airport geofences, grid squares, layers, and tubes were discussed. Throughout the conceptual designing, results were documented in an evolving Work Domain Analysis (WDA), which is a cornerstone of CWA. This approach allowed us to bootstrap the CWA for a first-of-a-kind-system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this study was to apply work domain analysis for cybersecurity assessment and design of supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems.Background: Adoption of information and communication technology in cyberphysical systems (CPSs) for critical infrastructures enables automated and distributed control but introduces cybersecurity risk. Many CPSs employ SCADA industrial control systems that have become the target of cyberattacks, which inflict physical damage without use of force. Given that absolute security is not feasible for complex systems, cyberintrusions that introduce unanticipated events will occur; a proper response will in turn require human adaptive ability. Therefore, analysis techniques that can support security assessment and human factors engineering are invaluable for defending CPSs.Method: We conducted work domain analysis using the abstraction hierarchy (AH) to model a generic SCADA implementation to identify the functional structures and means-ends relations. We then adopted a case study approach examining the Stuxnet cyberattack by developing and integrating AHs for the uranium enrichment process, SCADA implementation, and malware to investigate the interactions between the three aspects of cybersecurity in CPSs.Results: The AHs for modeling a generic SCADA implementation and studying the Stuxnet cyberattack are useful for mapping attack vectors, identifying deficiencies in security processes and features, and evaluating proposed security solutions with respect to system objectives.Conclusion: Work domain analysis is an effective analytical method for studying cybersecurity of CPSs for critical infrastructures in a psychologically relevant manner.Application: Work domain analysis should be applied to assess cybersecurity risk and inform engineering and user interface design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Operators need new visualizations to help them monitor increasingly complex power grids at wider geographical scopes. We developed a work domain analysis of power grid operations from interviews, focus groups, and observations. The work domain analysis helped determine information requirements for a wide-area monitoring design concept that follows ecological interface design principles. We validated the design concept in a usability evaluation, achieving an above-benchmark System Usability Scale score of 77 out of 90. This work domain analysis and ecological interface design process will equally apply to the design of other power grid monitoring displays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aircraft manufacturers and avionics systems suppliers are developing technologies for airliners that will be operated by just a single crew member. An alternative approach to using a large amount of on-board computing proposes the utilisation of extant technology derived from single-seat military aircraft and Uninhabited Air Systems where control is distributed in real time across the aircraft flight deck and ground stations (which supervise several aircraft simultaneously). Using a combination of operational event sequence diagrams and work domain analysis techniques, the allocation of tasks and requirements for the development of supporting technologies for such an operational architecture are identified in a low visibility taxi scenario. These analyses show that many of the functions undertaken by a second pilot in this situation are associated with checking, surveillance and monitoring activities. These must be undertaken either by automated aircraft systems or the monitoring personnel in the ground station. This analytical approach can successfully provide the necessary information underpinning the design requirements for such an aircraft concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central thesis of this paper is that Rasmussen framed his approach to Cognitive Systems Engineering from the perspective of a Triadic Semiotic Model. This frame became the context for integrating multiple intellectual threads including Control Theory, Information Theory, Ecological Psychology, and Gestalt Psychology into a coherent theoretical framework. The case is made that the triadic semiotic framework is essential for a complete appreciation of the constructs that were central to Rasmussen's approach: Abstraction Hierarchy, Skill-Rules-Knowledge Model, Ecological Interface Design, and Proactive Risk Management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this manuscript is on cognitive systems engineering/ecological interface design (CSE/EID) and the role that this framework may play in improving system safety. First, the decision making and problem solving literatures are reviewed with an eye towards informational needs that are required to support these activities. The utility of two of Rasmussen's analytical tools (i.e., the abstraction and aggregation hierarchies) in conducting work domain analyses to identify associated information (i.e., categories and relationships) is discussed. The importance of designing ecological displays and interfaces that span the informational categories in the abstraction hierarchy is described and concrete examples are provided. The potential role that ecological interfaces can play in providing effective decision making (i.e., preventing accidents) and problem solving (i.e., dealing with accidents) support, thereby improving the safety of our socio-technical systems, is explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Work Domain Analysis (WDA), the first dimension of cognitive work analysis, is used to explore work environment management. • The analysis srats with work environment regulatory requirement model. • The affordances of the work environment act purposes are discerned as functional purposes. • Nine purpose-related functions are identified. • Enhanced results-chain models can be derived for work environment improvement. Work environment regulations identify specific objectives that employers must fulfil. Work environment is a multidimensional concept encompassing nature of tasks, physical and social conditions, workplace characteristics and organisation, work schedule, prospects to the workers, and the intrinsic rewards associated with the work. Through work domain analysis, the first of the five dimensions of cognitive work analysis, the study explored the boundaries of work environment management. Mixed method including looking at regulatory requirements, a limited literature review and comprehensive discourse with occupational safety and health enforcement officials as subject matter experts provided the information to populate the abstraction decomposition space in the analysis. Affordances of the regulation purposes formed the functional purposes of the work environment management. Work environment indicators identified formed the value and priorities measures. Purpose-related functions were constructed from a work environment model, with subject matter experts providing the relevant physical resources and the functions the resources afford. Abstraction decomposition space for work environment management was designed showing means-ends links from resources to the purposes they fulfil in the system. From the abstraction decomposition space, it was possible to design results-chain models supporting decision-making. The analysis showed that the functional purposes can be fulfilled with different means-ends pathways. In addition, the purpose-related functions constructions allowed for superimposing of enforcement orders from earlier inspections reports, supporting the validity of the constructs. The study provided structure and content of work environment management, and decision-making models supporting the management practices and strengthening attainment of justifiable work environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An ecological interface simultaneously supports the three levels of cognitive control of the SRK taxonomy. Thus, an ecological interface should represent objects, constraints and the functional hierarchy of a work domain. Work domain representation is the first step of ecological interface design. However, the only technique presented to this end in the literature, the abstraction-decomposition hierarchy, is facing two problems. First, its structure is not compatible with that of the ecological interface. Second, to represent every element relevant to ecological interface design, a list of variables and a list of equations must be added to the abstraction-decomposition hierarchy. This article presents the WoDoMoLEID language as a novel work domain representation technique for ecological interface design. This article demonstrates how this technique solves the two problems associated with the abstraction-decomposition hierarchy, on the one hand, by supporting ecological interface design and on the other hand, by establishing a direct mapping between work domain constraints and reusable visual components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]