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Electron probe X-ray microanalysis enables concomitant observation of specimens and analysis of their elemental composition. The method is attractive for engineers developing tissue-compatible biomaterials. Either changes in element composition of cells or biomaterial can be defined according to well-established preparation and quantification procedures. However, the qualitative and quantitative elemental analysis appears more complicated when cells or thin tissue sections are deposited on biomaterials. X-ray spectra generated at the cell/tissue-biomaterial interface are modelled using a Monte Carlo simulation of a cell deposited on borosilicate glass. Enhanced electron backscattering from borosilicate glass was noted until the thickness of the biological layer deposited on the substrate reached 1.25 μm. It resulted in significant increase in X-ray intensities typical for the elements present in the cellular part. In this case, the mean atomic number value of the biomaterial determines the strength of this effect. When elements are present in the cells only, the positive linear relationship appears between X-ray intensities and cell thickness. Then, spatial dimensions of X-ray emission for the particular elements are exclusively in the range of the biological part and the intensities of X-rays become constant. When the elements are present in both the cell and the biomaterial, X-ray intensities are registered for the biological part and the substrate simultaneously leading to a negative linear relationship of X-ray intensities in the function of cell thickness. In the case of the analysis of an element typical for the biomaterial, strong decrease in X-ray emission is observed in the function of cell thickness as the effect of X-ray absorption and the limited excitation range to biological part rather than to the substrate. Correction procedures for calculations of element concentrations in thin films and coatings deposited on substrates are well established in materials science, but little is known about factors that have to be taken into account to accurately quantify bioelements in thin and semi-thick biological samples. Thus thorough tests of currently available quantification procedures are required to verify their applicability to cells or tissues deposited on the biomaterials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The first in-vacuum measurements of biological specimens in frozen-hydrated state using proton microbeam have been performed at Materials Research Group, iThemba LABS, South Africa. A commercially available cryotransfer system used in electron microscopy has been adapted for this purpose. The analyzed material was frozen in propane cooled by liquid nitrogen, fractured, carbon coated and transferred onto the cold stage (100K) in the nuclear microprobe chamber. Micro-PIXE and simultaneous proton backscattering was performed using 3MeV proton beam. Monitoring of water vapour composition during the proton bombardment showed good stability of the analyzed material. Quantitative results were obtained by standardless method, tested using 20% gelatine standards with added PbCl2. The differences between the concentrations obtained for frozen-hydrated and next freeze-dried specimens and the value calculated on the basis of weighted mass of PbCl2 added to gelatine were statistically insignificant. Leaf tissue of Senecio anomalochrous and larvae of Chysolina pardalina were used as examples of plant and animal tissue. Quantitative elemental mapping of frozen-hydrated specimens compared with subsequent analysis of the same areas after freeze-drying revealed the same distribution pattern in both cases. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Cryo-micro-PIXE system and methodology of microanalysis of frozen-hydrated semi-thick biological sections is described. A commercially available cryotransfer system used in electron microscopy has been adapted for this purpose. The analyzed material was frozen by metal–mirror method and sections of 20–50 micron thickness were prepared. Micro-PIXE and simultaneous proton backscattering was performed using 3MeV proton beam. Monitoring of water vapour composition during the proton bombardment showed good stability of the analyzed material. The results of repetitive analyses of standards prepared from gelatin–glycerol solution with added known concentrations of K, Ni, Cu, Zn were in good agreement with expected, calculated values. Mass losses and changes of elemental composition were monitored. Elemental maps obtained for frozen-hydrated semi-thick section of Ni hyperaccumulator Senecio coronatus showed excellent preservation of leaf morphology and the distribution of elements. Quantitative elemental mapping of frozen-hydrated specimens compared with subsequent analysis of the same areas after freeze-drying revealed similar distribution pattern in both cases. It is clear, however, that freeze-drying induces some distortion of cell morphology and specimen shrinkage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Leaves of Ni hyperaccumulator Berkheya coddii were chosen as a model to investigate the influence of eight freeze-substitution protocols on the Ni content and distribution. Freeze-substitution of leaf samples cryofixed by high-pressure freezing was carried out in dry acetone, methanol, diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran. The same substitution media were also used with dimethylglyoxime added as a precipitation reagent. The samples were infiltrated and embedded in Spurr’s resin. Micro-PIXE analysis of Ni concentration and localization, complemented by proton backscattering for matrix assessment, was performed using the nuclear microprobe at Materials Research Group, iThemba LABS, South Africa. True elemental maps and concentrations were obtained using GeoPIXE-II software. The results were compared with the control results obtained for the parallel air-dried samples, corrected for the water content. The highest Ni content was found in the leaf samples substituted in diethyl ether. This concentration was statistically different from the results obtained for other media. In case of diethyl ether medium Ni was mainly localized in the mesophyll tissue, and the distribution map of this element was in accordance with previous results obtained for freeze-dried and frozen-hydrated leaves of this species. The same distribution pattern was observed for specimens embedded in dry acetone, but Ni concentration was significantly lower. Tetrahydrofuran medium preserved Ni preferentially in the epidermis and vascular tissue, and the elemental map for samples embedded in this medium was distorted. Ni was almost completely washed out from samples substituted in methanol and it was thus impossible to obtain a picture of its distribution. Dimethylglyoxime did not improve the preservation of this element. These results show that diethyl ether is a suitable substitution medium for assessment of Ni concentration and distribution in leaves of B. coddii. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]