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Birds’ populations are being threatened by parasites that have not received adequate attention by parasitologists. This study aimed at evaluating the abundance and diversity of ectoparasites of the wild birds in Pandam Wildlife Park. A systematic five-month study of ectoparasites was conducted. Sixty-two (62) birds were trapped using mist nets and examined for ectoparasite infestation. Wool soaked with 70% ethanol, using gloved-protected-hand; ectoparasites were carefully extracted, preserved in sampling bottles containing 70% alcohol for morphological identification. A wide spectrum insecticide (0.09% tetrametrin and 0.45 piperronyl) was used to pulverize tiny parasites on the feather over a white paper. Overall, 4,066 ectoparasites belonging to 5 orders, 8 families, and 24 species were identified from the trapped birds. Fiftysix 56(90.3%) birds were found to be infested with ectoparasites, while 6(9.7%) had none. Phthirathera, and Siphonaptera were the most and least abundant respectively. The highest parasites found were lice (96.60%) and the least, fleas (0.02%). Wing predilection site had the highest infestation rate (83%), and the lowest was the leg (0.37%). The most caught and most infested bird species was the West African thrush bird Turdus pelios (14.28%), followed by the Red-checked cuckoo-shrike and Bronze manikin (10.70% and 7.14%) respectively. Least species of bird infested among others, were the African paradise king fisher, Blue-throated brown sunbird, Blue-spotted wood dove, and Blue-breasted fire finch (1.79%). Nevertheless, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the rate of infestations among the caught and examined bird species. The study provided useful insight and knowledge on how diverse and abundant ectoparasites of bird species are in this park and possible vector-borne diseases that may have zoonotic potential. Keywords: Abundance; birds; ectoparasites; diversity; park; wildlife.

The effect of perching versus hovering on the drinking speed of the Cameroon Sunbird Cyanomitra oritis and the Northern Double-collared Sunbird Cinnyris reichenowi was investigated in a cage experi...

Motion-activated cameras (“camera traps”) are useful for recording plant–animal interactions that are difficult to observe using conventional means. We used camera traps to document interactions between animal flower visitors and the orchid Satyrium neglectum subsp. woodii and used mesh exclosures which selectively exclude access of larger animals to flowers to test the importance of bird visits for pollination. Camera footage revealed that the orchid is visited by two sunbird species (amethyst and greater double-collared) which carry pollinaria on the upper mandible of their beaks. Plants which could only be accessed by bees and other small insects had few pollinaria removed and set very few fruits relative to plants which could also be accessed by larger animals such as sunbirds. The sturdy inflorescence stem, and thick fleshy perianth tissue, orange–red colour of the flowers, low scent production and large viscidia, are traits shared with other, distantly related bird-pollinated Satyrium species and can therefore be considered likely to play a functional role in bird pollination. We previously made anecdotal observations of sunbird visits to this orchid species in south-central Africa, and this study conducted in populations in South Africa confirms that sunbird pollination is consistent across the highly disjunct distribution of the taxon.

Nest predation is the dominant cause of nest failure in the tropics. However, our knowledge about tropical nest predator identity and community structure is still quite limited. On 9 January 2019, we video-recorded an Olive Sunbird (Cyanomitra olivacea) removing and flying off with an egg from an African Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone viridis) nest in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. This observation is surprising because the Olive Sunbird is a specialized nectarivore. Nectar, however, is a poor source of nitrogen and cannot meet the protein requirements for nectarivores. We hypothesize that bird eggs are a potential source of protein for selected long-billed sunbird species—species that can grasp and handle small bird eggs. Our observation of nest predation by an Olive Sunbird adds a heretofore unknown behavior to nectarivores in general and to sunbirds specifically.

Orange-tufted sunbirds (Cinnyris osea) feed on the nectar of the tobacco tree (Nicotiana glauca) which contains toxic pyridine alkaloids characterized by high concentrations of anabasine and much lower concentrations of nicotine. We aimed at determining whether the gut microbiota of sunbirds harbors bacterial species that enable the birds to cope with these toxic alkaloids. An in vivo experiment that included 12 birds showed that inducing dysbiosis in sunbirds’ guts by the addition of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim, significantly reduced the birds’ ability to degrade anabasine (n = 3) compared to control birds (n = 3) with undisturbed microbiota. Sunbirds whose gut bacterial communities were altered by the antibacterial agents and who were fed with added nicotine, also showed a lower percentage of nicotine degradation (n = 3) in their excreta compared to the sunbirds with undisturbed microbiota (n = 3), though this difference was not significant. In an in vitro experiment, we studied the ability of Lactococcus lactis, Enterobacter hormaechei, Chryseobacterium gleum, Kocuria palustris, and Methylorubrum populi that were isolated from sunbirds’ excreta, to degrade anabasine and nicotine. By using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, we successfully demonstrated, for the first time, the ability of these species to degrade the focal secondary metabolites. Our findings demonstrate the role of gut bacteria in detoxifying toxic secondary metabolites found in the N. glauca nectar. The degradation products may supply the birds with nitrogen which is scarce in nectar-rich diets. These findings support another role of bacteria in mediating the interactions between plants and their pollinators.

Capsule: The incubation behaviour of the Fire-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga ignicauda was measured using data loggers in the Hengduan Mountains, China, to test predictions of parental trade-off theory. ...

Aeschynanthus (Gesneriaceae), a genus comprising approximately 160 species in subtropical Southeast Asia, has red, tubular flowers, typical of a sunbird pollination syndrome. A. acuminatus, the species that is distributed extending to the northern edge of the genus, where the specialized nectarivorous sunbirds are absent, possesses reddish-green flowers and a wide-open corolla tube, flowering time shifts from summer to winter and the species achieves high fruiting success. This atypical flower led us to investigate the pollination biology of this species. Three species of generalist passerines, Grey-cheeked Fulvetta (Alcippe morrisonia, Sylviidae), White-eared Sibia (Heterophasia auricularis, Leiothrichidae) and Taiwan Yuhina (Yuhina brunneiceps, Zosteropidae), were recorded visiting A. acuminatus flowers. Pollination effectiveness was quantified via conspecific pollen presence on stigmas and natural fruit set. The significantly high natural fruit set (60%) and conspecific pollen transfer rate (94%) indicate high reproductive success facilitated by the accurate pollen placement on the birds. The existence of copious (61 µL) and highly diluted (7%) hexose-dominant nectar, together with a major reflectance peak of corolla lobe in the long-wavelength red color spectrum, is consistent with the pollination syndrome of generalist passerines. The high pollination effectiveness of A. acuminatus due to the recruitment of generalist passerines as pollinators, and the specializations of floral traits to match generalist bird pollination, appear crucial in the successful colonization on islands such as Taiwan that lack specialized bird pollinators.

A new quill mite species, Neoaulonastus sidorchukae sp. nov. (Acariformes: Syringophilidae), is described from under-tail covert feathers of Leptocoma zeylonica (Linnaeus) (Passeriformes: Nectariniidae) from Sri Lanka. It is the second record of syringophilid mites of the genus Neoaulonastus parasitizing sunbirds.

Sunbirds (Passeriformes: Nectariniidae) are small passerines that feed largely on nectar. The aim of this work was to study the occurrence of sunbirds in different habitats, to observe and describe their activity frequencies, to observe the relationship of the Long-billed sunbird Cinnyris lotenius and Purple-rumped sunbird Leptocoma zeylonica with their host flowers, and to examine their behavioral relationships with the colour of the flower, flower count, nectar glucose concentration and the length of corolla of flowers. The study was carried out in five different habitat types in the Kandy district, Sri Lanka: a forest reserve, home garden habitats at two widely separated locations, a roadside habitat, and a botanical garden. The study was carried out between March and September 2013. Results show that during the day, sunbirds spent most of their time in foraging than in acquiring food. In the study, 21 different plants were recognized as nectar feeding plants for sunbirds. The number of visits by sunbirds did not depend on the plant species or the colour of the flower. The results also indicated that the correlation between the flower count and the occurrence of the Long-billed sunbird was not significant. However, there was a significant correlation between the flower count and the occurrence of the Purple-rumped sunbird. Furthermore, there was a significant correlation with the glucose concentration and the occurrence of the Long-billed sunbird; whereas no such correlation between the glucose concentration and the occurrence of Purple-rumped sunbird. There was no significant correlation with the length of corolla and the occurrence of the Long-billed sunbird, but there was a significant correlation in occurrence of Purple-rumped sunbird and the length of corolla. These correlations are due to the difference in their body size and bill length. The difference in feeding plants is due to their bill length and that allows both of them to share a common habitat.

We describe the nest of the endemic Whitehead's Spiderhunter (Arachnothera juliae) from Mt. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, and compare it to those of the most closely related species, the Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (A. chrysogenys) and the Naked-faced Spiderhunter (A. clarae). The nest was found on 3 August 2014 in lower montane forest at 1,400 m elevation along the summit trail on the western slopes of Mt. Mulu. It consisted of a bowl lined with fine bark material inside a naturally occurring hanging ball of moss 19 m above the ground in a large tree. It contained no eggs, but the pair was observed carrying in nest materials on several occasions.

Several sunbird species (Nectariniidae) exhibit group display, but the function of this behaviour still remains unclear. We test two hypotheses (reproductive tactic and joint territory defence) to explain the function of this behaviour using data gathered on Northern Double-collared Sunbirds (Cinnyris reichenowi) from the Cameroon Mountains. Sunbirds exhibited group display throughout the breeding cycle. Groups of birds were mainly comprised of neighbouring pairs aggregated at territory boundaries. The frequency of group displays varied significantly among individuals and over the breeding cycle, with the highest frequency during the pre-breeding period and the lowest during egg-laying (∼female's fertile period). Time spent on group display was significantly longer at the end of breeding. Off-territory forays were recorded for both males and females, males significantly increased the time spent on these forays during incubation. Extra-pair copulations were recorded only in five cases for females (4%) suggesting that most off-territory forays were motivated by feeding on nectar in neighbouring territories. Therefore, we suggest that the behaviour is used for joint territory defence rather than as an information centre for choosing mates for extra-pair copulations. Its function for choosing primary mates is also unlikely, because group displays were mainly observed in complete pairs.

Observations on nesting Beautiful Long-tailed Sunbirds Cinnyris pulchellus in The Gambia revealed that some females have dark or partially dark bibs, contrary to most accounts in the literature. Furthermore, all fledglings seen in The Gambia also had dark bibs and some males in eclipse plumage or lacking tail-streamers engaged in breeding activity. The conclusion that some adult female C. pulchellus have dark bibs and that some, probably all, juveniles have dark bibs was confirmed from museum specimens. It is further demonstrated, based on specimens, that some adult females and juveniles of Gorgeous Sunbird C. melanogastrus also have dark bibs.

Opportunistic bird pollination has become more evident in studies that confirm distinct differences in floral adaptations that attract opportunistic, rather than specialist, bird pollinators. Pollination syndrome studies investigating the effectiveness of different pollinator guilds on reproduction seldom do so by measuring seed viability. We studied pollination in Aloe peglerae, a high altitude endemic succulent of the Magaliesberg mountain range, previously thought to be largely sunbird (specialist) pollinated. Using field observation and pollinator exclusion treatments, i.e. (i) open to all visitors, (ii) bird excluded, and (iii) all visitors excluded, we established that birds contributed significantly more to fruit (2.3–5.6 times) and seed (1.3–1.4 times) set than insect or self-pollination, respectively. Overall, pollination by opportunistic avian nectarivores amplified seed production per aloe ~7 and 10 times compared to insects and self-pollination, respectively. One of three opportunistic nectarivores, the Cape Rock-Thrush (Monticola rupestris), played a significant role in pollination, contributing ~60 % of all probes at inflorescences. The difference in reproductive output between insect visited and visitor excluded flowers was not significant and suggests possible self-pollination in A. peglerae which is particularly unusual in Aloe species. Breeding system experiments would help clarify this. In assessing the effectiveness of pollinator guild on seed viability, we found no differences in percentage seed viability, seed germination or seedling emergence between exclusion treatments. Seed viability and germination were low and variable; however, ~19 % seedling emergence was observed across the treatments. Practically, the net effect of bird pollination may result in 8–12 times more potential seedlings compared to insect and self-pollination respectively. These findings highlight the importance of pollination by opportunistic avian nectarivores in Aloe.

We measured δ13C and δ15N isotope signatures in flight feathers of a White-bellied Sunbird to assess the value of using stable isotopes of feathers in avian dietary studies. Significant variation in δ13C and δ15N isotope values of flight feathers (range = 3.1%o and 2.7%o, respectively) indicated that the source of carbon (i.e. C3 or CAM) and trophic level position shifted significantly during the flight feather moult period. Temporal dietary changes in an individual sunbird highlight the implications for interpreting avian diets using stable isotopes. However, by analysing feathers, dietary input may be interpreted at different levels if the moult process is well understood.

Substantial amounts of maternal androgens are found in birds' eggs and have been shown to benefit offspring development. Within-clutch patterns of increasing androgen concentrations over the laying sequence are often hypothesized to compensate for the negative effects of hatching asynchrony. However, detrimental effects to offspring fitness of exposure to high yolk androgen levels have also been demonstrated. This suggests that mothers should forego these costs to their offspring when the need for compensation for hatching asynchrony is low or when alternative compensatory strategies, e.g. in terms of increasing egg mass, are available. Here we show that in the south-temperate lesser double-collared sunbird Nectarinia chalybea, a species with hatching asynchrony but also with high survival of last-hatched chicks, mothers do not deposit resources differentially in terms of either yolk androgen concentration or egg mass across the laying sequence. We discuss to what extend this challenges the original explanation of within-clutch variation in these egg parameters and offer some explanation for their between-clutch variation which was related to female body mass.

We review digestion and osmoregulation in the avian gut, with an emphasis on the ways these different functions might interact to support or constrain each other and the ways they support the functioning of the whole animal in its natural environment. Differences between birds and other vertebrates are highlighted because these differences may make birds excellent models for study and may suggest interesting directions for future research. At a given body size birds, compared with mammals, tend to eat more food but have less small intestine and retain food in their gastrointestinal tract (GIT) for shorter periods of time, despite generally higher mass-specific energy demands. On most foods, however, they are not less efficient at digestion, which begs the question how they compensate. Intestinal tissue-specific rates of enzymatic breakdown of substrates and rates of active transport do not appear higher in birds than in mammals, nor is there a demonstrated difference in the extent to which those rates can be modulated during acclimation to different feeding regimes (e.g. diet, relative intake level). One compensation appears to be more extensive reliance on passive nutrient absorption by the paracellular pathway, because the avian species studied so far exceed the mammalian species by a factor of at least two- to threefold in this regard. Undigested residues reach the hindgut, but there is little evidence that most wild birds recover microbial metabolites of nutritional significance (essential amino acids and vitamins) by re-ingestion of faeces, in contrast to many hindgut fermenting mammals and possibly poultry. In birds, there is some evidence for hindgut capacity to breakdown either microbial protein or protein that escapes the small intestine intact, freeing up essential amino acids, and there is considerable evidence for an amino acid absorptive capacity in the hindgut of both avian and mammalian hindgut fermenters. Birds, unlike mammals, do not excrete hyperosmotic urine (i.e. more than five times plasma osmotic concentration). Urine is mixed with digesta rather than directly eliminated, and so the avian gut plays a relatively more important role in water and salt regulation than in mammals. Responses to dehydration and high- and low-salt loads are reviewed. Intestinal absorption of ingested water is modulated to help achieve water balance in one species studied (a nectar-feeding sunbird), the first demonstration of this in any terrestrial vertebrate. In many wild avian species the size and digestive capacity of the GIT is increased or decreased by as much as 50% in response to nutritional challenges such as hyperphagia, food restriction or fasting. The coincident impacts of these changes on osmoregulatory or immune function of the gut are poorly understood.

We review the published information on postnatal growth rates of hummingbirds (13 species), and report previously unpublished records for nine additional trochilid species. The allometric relationship based on the log10-transformed data of K (logistic growth rate constant) and body mass has a slope of −0.313 and an intercept of −0.346 (n = 22; r2 = 0.18; P = 0.049). The allometric relationship has a slope of −0.366 and an intercept of −0.327 (n = 20; r2 = 0.30; P = 0.013) if the two Nearctic records are excluded. Visual inspection suggests that higher K-values occur in Nearctic hummingbirds (x = 0.422; n = 2) compared to Neotropic species (x = 0.269; n = 20). We suggest a revival of studies collecting basic life history information such as postnatal growth rates of birds, especially of tropical taxa.

Plasmodium (Novyella) megaglobularis n. sp. was recorded in the olive sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea, and Plasmodium (Novyella) globularis n. sp. and Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus) vacuolatus n. sp. were found in the yellow-whiskered greenbul Andropadus latirostris in rainforests of Ghana and Cameroon. These parasites are described based on the morphology of their blood stages and a segment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, which can be used for molecular identification and diagnosis of these species. Illustrations of blood stages of new species are given, and phylogenetic analysis identifies deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) lineages closely related to these parasites. Traditional taxonomy of avian pigment-forming haemosporidians of the families Plasmodiidae and Haemoproteidae is discussed based on the recent molecular phylogenies of these parasites. We conclude that further work to increase the number of precise linkages between haemosporidian DNA sequences and their corresponding morphospecies is needed before revising the current classification of haemosporidians. This study emphasises the value of both the polymerase chain reaction and microscopy in the identification of avian haemosporidian parasites.

Three new species of the feather mite (Analgoidea: Proctophyllodidae: subfamily Pterodectinae) are described from passerines from Central Africa: Montesauria faini sp. nov. from the African Golden-breasted Bunting, Emberiza flaviventris Stephens, 1815 (Emberizidae), M. pallida sp. nov. from the Red-headed Weaver, Anaplectes rubriceps (Sundevall, 1850) (Ploceidae), and Pedanodectes blaszaki sp. nov. from the Copper Sunbird, Cinnyris cupreus (Shaw, 1812), (Nectariniidae).

Birds show considerable variation in sperm morphology. Closely related species and subspecies can show diagnostic differences in sperm size. There is also variation in sperm size among males within a population, and recent evidence from passerine birds suggests that the coefficient of inter-male variation in sperm length is negatively associated with the level of sperm competition. Here we examined patterns of inter- and intra-specific variation in sperm length in 12 species of sunbird (Nectariniidae) from Nigeria and Cameroon, a group for which such information is extremely limited. We found significant variation among species in sperm total length, with mean values ranging from 74 μm to 116 μm, placing these species within the short to medium sperm length range for passerine birds. Most of this variation was explained by the length of the midpiece, which contains the fused mitochondria and is an important structure for sperm energetics. Relative midpiece length was negatively correlated with the coefficient of inter-male variation in sperm total length across species, suggesting that sperm competition may have selected for greater midpiece length in this group. We also mapped sperm lengths onto a time-calibrated phylogeny and found support for a phylogenetic signal in all sperm length components, except head length. A test of various evolutionary or tree transformation models gave strongest support for the Brownian motion model for all sperm components, i.e. divergences were best predicted by the phylogenetic distance between lineages. The coefficients of inter-male variation in sperm total length indicate that sperm competition is high but variable among sunbird species, as is the case with passerine birds at large. The final version of this research has been published in Ibis. © 2016 Wiley

Many studies have focused on tail ornamentation in birds, but not all tail shapes have been studied in depth. Graduated and pin tails have received less attention than forked tails, despite being more likely, in terms of aerodynamic theory, to be honest signals. We report morphological variation in live specimens of two sexually dimorphic passerines from the same site with different tail shapes: graduated (Cape sugarbird Promerops cafer ) and pin (orangebreasted sunbird Antobaphes violacea ). Coefficients of variation (CVs) were calculated for all morphological traits, both non-ornamental (range 1.91–5.72) and ornamental (range 5.83–21.71). Males and females did not differ in CV for any non-ornamental trait. Ornamental traits in males of both species were significantly more variable than all non-ornamental traits. Cape sugarbird ornamental traits were significantly more variable than those of orangebreasted sunbirds. The high levels of variation in graduated tails relative to pintails suggest that these traits have been driven mainly by sexual selection. In contrast, both constraining natural and multiple ornament selection could be responsible for the relatively low levels of variation in pintails.

Five species of Leucocytozoon were recovered from 35/828 birds of 95 species examined from 6 sites in West Africa between May 1995 and June 2001. Leucocytozoon pogoniuli n. sp. is described from the tinker barbets Pogoniulus subsulphureus and Pogoniulus atroflavus. Leucocytozoon trachyphoni n. sp. is described from the barbet Trachyphonus purpureus. No leucocytozoids have been reported previously in species of Pogoniulus. Leucocytozoon nectariniae was identified from the sunbird Nectarinia olivacea, and Leucocytozoon brimonti was recovered from 4 species of Pycnonotidae (bulbuls), all of which are new host records. We also report the first Leucocytozoon to be recovered from the phylogenetically isolated bird, Picathartes sp. (Picathartidae). This parasite is similar in appearance to Leucocytozoon sakharoffi, and probably represents a previously undescribed species. In view of the intraspecific variability and, frequently, relatively minor interspecific differences within Leucocytozoidae, we suggest that the development and application of molecular techniques would greatly advance understanding of speciation and relationships within this family.

SUMMARYAlthough most birds are accustomed to making short flights, particularly during foraging, the flight patterns during these short periods of activity differ between species. Nectarivorous birds, in particular, often spend time hovering, while non-nectarivorous birds do not. The cost of short flights is likely therefore to differ between nectarivorous and non-nectarivorous birds because of the different energetic contributions of different flight types to the behaviour. The 13C-labelled bicarbonate technique was used to measure the energy cost of short flights in the nectarivorous Palestine sunbird Nectarinia osea (mean mass 6.17±0.16 g, N=8)and the non-nectarivorous starling Sturnus vulgaris (mean mass 70.11±1.11 g, N=9). The technique was initially calibrated in five individuals for each species at temperatures ranging from 1 to 35°C,by comparing the isotope elimination rate to the metabolic rate measured simultaneously by indirect calorimetry. The cost for short intermittent flight was then measured by encouraging birds to fly between two perches at either end of a narrow corridor (perch distance for sunbirds, 6 m; for starlings, 5 m), and measuring the amount of isotope eliminated during the flight. The isotope elimination rate was interpolated onto the calibration equation to predict flight cost, as a direct calibration could not be performed during flight. Mean energy expenditure during flight was 1.64±0.32 W in sunbirds, while in starlings the flight costs averaged 20.6±0.78 W. Energy cost of flight relative to basal metabolic rate was substantially greater in the starling than the sunbird. Phylogenetic analysis of different modes of flight in these and additional species suggests that differences in flight behaviour may cause these elevated costs in slow flying non-nectarivores such as starlings, compared to birds that are more prone to short intermittent flights like the sunbirds.

Parent Palestine sunbirds (Nectarinia osea) feed on flower nectar that is not fed to their nestlings. This phenomenon provided a unique opportunity to manipulate self-feeding rates of parent birds independently of the rate at which they feed arthropod prey to their offspring. Based on provisioning models, we predicted that parents would invest more in their young as the energy content of their own food increased. From our earlier work, we also predicted that the levels of sex-specific activities of males and females would differ as the energy content of their food increased. Sunbird pairs with two or three nestlings were provided with feeders containing a low-, medium- or high-concentration sucrose solution. As the sugar concentration increased, the females delivered arthropods at a greater rate to their nestlings, removed proportionally more faecal sacs and spent longer at the nest, while the males increased their mobbing effort. Nestling food intake and body mass, but not tarsus length or bill size, were larger in small broods than in large broods, and increased with increasing feeder sugar concentration. These results imply that increasing the energy content of food consumed by parent sunbirds allows them to increase the rate at which other foods are delivered to their young and to increase other parental care activities as well. The results also add credence to the idea that behavioural decisions reflect life-history trade-offs between parental self-feeding and investment in current young.

Male orange-tufted sunbirds (Nectarinia osea) exhibit distinct song dialects throughout Israel. Recently, two distinct local dialects with a sharp boundary were discovered in a small (1.5 km 2 ) urban neighborhood densely inhabited by 63 territorial sunbird pairs. We conducted playback experiments to determine song dialect discrimination capability by sunbird males in this neighborhood. Males of both dialects responded significantly more strongly to playback of their own dialect than to that of the adjacent dialect. In spite of the extreme proximity between the two dialect areas, we found no effect of distance to the neighboring dialect on the intensity of any the behavioral responses. We suggest that due to the complex acoustic properties of this urban neighborhood, sunbirds are extremely limited in the number of neighboring males they can assess to establish what the local song is. A stronger response to one’s own dialect is therefore expected, and we discuss how local dialects could be maintained via this mechanism regardless of the very small distances between territories and dialect populations.

Territorial behavior of the orange-tufted sunbird (Nectarinia osea Bonaparte) was studied in a suburb of Tel Aviv. Both male and female orange-tufted sunbirds occupied and guarded their territory throughout the year, but did so at different intensities in relation to season and fertility stages. When they were in the territory, both sexes spent most of their time at its center, and more so during the breeding season. Throughout the year, males tended to perch in exposed locations, while females spent 90% of their time in concealed locations. Males were also much more vocal than females, and during the breeding season they sang from high places, which females never did. It is suggested that occupying a territory during autumn may increase the chances of the territory’s owners continuing to occupy it during the breeding season. Territories were also defended and advertised during the breeding season, with the female fertility stage having a significant effect on the behavior of her male partner, whose prese...

Abstract In a study of male song in the orange-tufted sunbird (Nectarinia osea) in an urban neighborhood in Ramat-Aviv, Israel, we discovered the occurrence of song variation on a microgeographic scale in the form of two distinct dialects with a sharp boundary between them. The main distinction between the two song dialects is the frequency of the trill, which comprises the terminal part of the song. A large difference of 2-3 kHz in the peak frequency of the trill was discovered between the two dialects, which could be easily distinguished by ear. Thirtyseven males were recorded singing the 'low' dialect and 21 birds sang the 'high' dialect. Four other birds sang both dialects or 'hybrid' songs. Along the boundary that separated the two dialect populations, neighboring birds sang different dialect songs, although they were only 20-30 meters apart. All four 'bilingual' birds occupied territories near the dialect boundary. The historical processes leading to the formation of this dialect system may result from the pattern of human settlement at the time of the establishment of this neighborhood in the early 1950's. The spatial distribution of the two sunbird dialect populations, and the apparent low dispersal rates of birds from their natal dialect area, suggest the existence of a mechanism, which currently maintains these dialects at the current boundaries.

Mixed- species foraging bird flocks in Walauwatta-Waturan Swamp Forest (WWSF) were studiedfor a period of six months from February to July in 2001. Field data was collected from 07:00 to18:00 hrs and flocks were followed as long as possible to record their composition. Scan samplingmethod (Altman, 1975) was used to record their behavioural activity, height of feeding, feedingsite and the role of each individual within the flock. Two minute scan samples were done with fiveminute intervals and almost all the birds participating in the flock were scanned within the twominutes time period. The flocking tendency of birds in WWSF was 28.7% and 27 flocks were studied. A total of 31 birdspecies were recorded to participate in mixed-species flocks in WWSF. These include 28 residentand 3 migrate species. Five species were endemic to Sri Lanka. The flock composition varied from3 to 15 species (5.89±2.61) and 4 to 31 individuals (I2.96±7.41). There was a positive correlationbetween the number of species and ~ock size (r= 0.796). Crested Drongo (77.78%) and Black-naped Monarch (70.37%) were the most frequent birds foundin flocks while Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler was the most abundant (8.78±3.67 individuals perflock). Territorial species such as Purple-romped Sunbird joined the flock when it was passingthrough their territory. Birds in mixed-species flocks in WWSF were classified as nuclear species,lead species, regular species, and occasional species. 2 major nuclear species (Crested Drongo &Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler), 4 lead species (Above two with Malabar Trogon and AsianParadise Flycatcher), 12 regular species, and IS occasional species were identified. Associations ofbird species participating in mixed species flocks in WWSF were studied using cluster analysis.Two main clusters could be identified, one of which could be again divided into two subassociations.The first cluster comprised of Crested Drongo and Black-naped Monarch who showedthe highest level of association. Black Bulbul and Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler could not bepooled into any clusters. Different species in mixed species flocks had different optimum height levels of movementthrough the forest and appeared to have characteristic feeding sites. The vertical distribution of theregular species in flocks was consistent. Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler was found at a widerange of foraging heights. But, Scarlet Minivet and Black Bulbul were observed mostly in thecanopy and the Crested Drongo was observed in the middle strata of the forest (10 to 20 ft). TheAsian Paradise Flycatcher was observed in the same range. However, other fly catching species(Black-naped Monarch and Tickell's Blue flycatcher) were observed mostly in the 10 to 15ftvertical range. There was an extensive overlap of height ranges between some species. But theywere observed to use different activity/feeding sites. Black-naped Monarch and Velvet-frontedBlue Nuthatch were found in the same height range, but feeding sites utilized by them wasdifferent (foliage and tree trunk respectively). Crested Drongo and Asian Paradise Flycatcher wereobserved to occupy the same vertical height range and feeding sites, but they were using differentfeeding techniques. Even being a small area of 12 ha (CEA, 1994) IIWTOUIIdedby Rubber plantations and homegardens, the Swamp Forest have a considerable flocking tendency with compared to Sinharaja Forest Reserve 30%)(Kotagama et. AI., 1986) and Knuckles Conservation Forest (30.S) (Sbriyani, 2000), thus worth conserve thehabitat

We document the discovery of the first population of greater double-collared sunbird ( Cinnyris afer complex) from the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. We assessed phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic rank based on mtDNA sequence data, nine microsatellite loci and morphology. This new taxon, locally distributed in the Rubeho and Udzungwa Highlands, has close affinities (< 1% uncorrected sequence divergence) with C. w hytei (split here from C . ludovicensis) of the Nyika Plateau in Malawi, but differs in having longer tarsi and in subtle plumage details. Although the birds from Nyika and Udzungwa-Rubeho are reciprocally monophyletic for mitochondrial DNA, coalescent analyses of the microsatellite data and the total molecular dataset could not reject the possibility of continued gene flow between the two populations. Thus, although we favour the phylogenetic species concept, we adopt a cautious approach and formally describe the Rubeho and Udzungwa greater double-collared sunbird population as a subspecies of Cinnyris whytei. This new sunbird taxon has been recorded only above 1700 m in scrub on the forest/grassland ecotone in a very restricted area in the Rubeho and Udzungwa Highlands of Tanzania. The effects of human settlement and agriculture threaten this taxon.

Haemoproteus osea sp. nov. is described from the blood of Nectarinia osea, sunbird species, endemic to Israel and the Red Sea zone of Arabia. Infection was found only in one out of 44 birds, in Eilat, at the north end of Gulf of Aqaba; level of parasitaemia was 0.07%. Young gametocytes adhere alongside the nucleus. The gametocytes extend alongside the erythrocyte nucleus, filling the entire space to the erythrocyte envelope and only slightly impose over the tip of the erythrocyte nucleus. Mean nuclear displacement ratio is 0.75. H. osea differs from H. sequeirae Tendeiro, 1947 in having the microgametocyte cytoplasm blue staining, similarly to the macrogametocyte, rather than reddish white, and also in causing less evident displacement of the erythrocyte nucleus.

1. 1. The sunbird Aethopyga christinae and the hummingbird Sephanoides sephanoides have very similar body masses (5.2 and 5.7 g) and extensive morphological convergences. Experiments have been performed to determine whether both bird taxa also exhibit similar patterns of body temperature-regulation and energy metabolism. 2. 2. The metabolic rate for the non-passerine hummingbird is higher than predicted but within the expected range for the passerine sunbird. The hummingbird undergoes torpor, the duration and level of which are clearly correlated with ambient temperatures. The sunbird does not show any lethargy even when forced to fast. 3. 3. Under euthermic conditions body temperature (Tb) in both species lies within the normal range. “Hypothermia” in the sunbird reduced Tb to 32–33°; Tb of the hummingbird may fall slightly below 20°C during torpor. 4. 4. The mean rate of heat loss below the thermoneutral zone is (day/night) 8.04/5.38 J(g h °C)−1 or 2.23/1.5 mW(g °C)−1 in the hummingbird and 8.61/4.21 J(g h °C)−1 or 2.39/1.17 mW(g °C)−1 in the sunbird. 5. 5. The respiratory quotient at night varies between 0.75 and 0.80 in both species. Mean values during the day are 1.05 in the hummingbird and 1.2 in the sunbird. 6. 6. The mean ventilation frequency (day/night) is 183/158 min−1 in the hummingbird and 193/117 min−1 in the sunbird; tidal volumes are 0.170/0.099 ml and 0.172/0.090 ml, respectively. Only minute volumes during night are significantly different between the species (higher in the hummingbird). 7. 7. The hummingbird shows special physiological characteristics, whereas the data for the sunbird are almost in the theoretically expected range.

(1991). Growth and Development of the Yellow-bellied Sunbird Nectarinia jugularis in North Queensland. Emu - Austral Ornithology: Vol. 91, No. 1, pp. 58-61.

Trypanosoma naviformis n. sp. is described from the African olive sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea in Ghana based on the morphology of its hematozoic trypomastigotes and partial sequences of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene. This parasite belongs to the group of small non-striated avian trypanosomes (< 30 µm in length in average) with the kinetoplast situated close to the posterior end of the body. Trypanosoma naviformis can be distinguished from other small avian trypanosomes due to its poorly visible flagellum, central position of its nucleus, and the symmetrically (in relation to the nucleus) narrowing of both ends of the hematozoic trypomastigotes, which are boat-like in shape. Illustrations of trypomastigotes of the new species are given, and SSU rDNA lineages associated with this parasite are documented. This parasite has been reported in Ghana and Cameroon and was also found in the yellow-whiskered greenbul, Andropadus latirostris in these countries. It appears to be widespread in its range given the distribution of these bird species in Africa.

Blood smears from birds in the Philepittidae, endemic to Madagascar, were examined for the presence of hematozoa. All slides were read on a compound microscope at ×100, ×160, and ×1,000. To date, no species of avian hematozoa has been reported from asities in Madagascar, although parasites have been observed. Leucocytozoon greineri n. sp. is described from the common sunbird asity (Neodrepanis coruscans) and is also reported from the velvet asity (Philepitta castanea). It is a relatively small species of Leucocytozoon, less than 2 times the size of uninfected erythrocytes. The parasite is capped by the host cell nucleus, covering 38% of the parasite perimeter. This represents the first description of hematozoa from this family.

The haemoproteids of the sunbird family Nectariniidae are reviewed on the basis of material obtained from throughout the distributional range of the family. Variability in the 19 morphometric parameters used to define haemoproteid species were studied (i) over time in the same individual host; (ii) between individual hosts of the same species; (iii) between hosts of different species; and (iv) between hosts from different geographic regions. Statistical analyses indicated that the morphology of the parasites remained remarkably constant and the degree of variability noted was of the same order of magnitude for parasites within a single smear, between individual and different species of hosts, and between hosts from different regions. All parasites studied were morphologically similar and represented a single species, Haemoproteus sequeirae Tendeiro, 1947. Haemoproteus raymundi de Mello and Raimundo, 1934, is declared incertae sedis.

Different concentrations of a sucrose solution vary the courtship song and behaviour of the male yellow-bellied sunbird Nectarinia venusta- the duration of subsong, total singing duration, and the absolute number of full song phrases. With high concentrations the sunbird sings more full song phrases but less subsong during the courtship season than otherwise. The various effects are described.

Niche separation was studied in two sympatric sunbird species in the Kivu Highlands (Republic of Zaire, Africa). Cyanomitra verticalis and Nectarinia kilimensis occur together in many parts of East and Central Africa and live, at least in the study area, in the same habitat. Nectarinia kilimensis is somewhat bigger and heavier than Cyanomitra verticalis. Bill size and shape are almost identical; small differences cannot be attributed to ecological or other facts.The food of both species consists of two different components. One of them is nectar (rich in carbohydrates) which they suck on flowers of shrubs and trees, especially on Erythrina tomentosa. No niche separation could be detected in their way of visiting flowers: they visit the same trees, often at the same time.The other component (rich in protein) consists of arthropods which represent about 10%, maximally up to 30% of the food. Here both species differ in catching methods as well as in the systematic composition of the prey: Cyanomitra verticalis searches on trunks and branches and collects predominantly spiders and cicada larvae; Nectarinia kilimensis catches insects on the wing, especially ants, beetles and tipulids. Both species may be limited by their requirement of arthropods, for the following reasons: 1. arthropod food is essential for both species and cannot be replaced by nectar; 2. availability of arthropods is restricted because both species have only few stereotype behavioural mechanisms for catching arthropods. Furthermore, arthropods are an important food resource for many other animals. It is proposed that the populations of Cyanomitra verticalis and Nectarinia kilimensis are limited by the arthropod supply in such a way that, in comparison, nectar is available in abundance. Thus, there is no competition for nectar. On the other hand, competition for arthropods, though present, is reduced by different feeding behaviour. Therefore Cyanomitra verticalis and Nectarinia kilimensis can coexist in the studied area.

Observations of unrelated but ecologically comparable species of sunbirds, Nectariniidae, derived from Malaysia, and honeyeaters, Meliphagidae, derived from Australia in the interstitial region of the eastern Indonesian islands, indicate that these birds of identical size and similar food habits, are at least in partial competition. A study of the behavior of these birds in the territory of one of the species indicates an unequal numerical ratio between the species and dominant, aggressive behavior by the scarcer species (honeyeater). It is suggested that the behavioral activity of aggressiveness may in itself serve to limit successful reproduction in addition to other phenomena such as clutch size or nesting success of which so far nothing is known. Any activities of a social or behavioral nature which may serve to limit the reproductive rate of the species may, therefore, have a considerable absolute survival value.

Allohymenolepis palawanensis sp. n. from a yellow-breasted sunbird, Nectarinia jugularis, in Palawan, Republic of the Philippines, is characterized by possessing a sucker diameter of 52–56 μm, a scolex of 120 × 157–166 μm, ovary 25–40 × 71–90 μm, and a vitelline gland of 17–25μm

Leonotis leonurus was studied with the aim of characterising nectar quality and quantity, and of monitoring the sunbirds' response to the resource. The flowers produced high quality nectar in low quantities. Nectar quality remained constant during the day and averaged 23.4% sucrose equivalents (an energy content of 3.8j/μl). Nectar production was highest during the morning when flow rates reached a peak of 3.3 μl/h. L. leonurus was visited by four species of sunbirds. In 1977 there were 7.8 visits/h to the flowers. The clump was defended by a single Olive Sunbird (Nectarinia olivacea) who defended the flowers intra- and interspecifically. On one day the territorial bird obtained approximately 57.1 kJ from the Leonotis flowers and expended 5.4 kJ on defence and 13.6 kJ overall while on the territory. Territorial behaviour and intruder pressure was a function of resource availability. When Leonotis nectar levels were high intruder pressure was intense and the territorial bird employed long chases as a defence behaviour. When nectar levels desreased intruder pressure was lower, the territorial bird chased less and employed vocalisations as a relatively inexpensive form of territorial behaviour.In 1978 there was an abundance of nectar sources in the study area due to the late onset of the dry season. Sunbirds were not territorial at Leonotis and visiting rates were lower than in 1977, averaging only 1.7 visits per hour. Instead the sunbirds concentrated on contemporaneously flowering plant species, particularly Halleria lucida.