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In this study, we tested a novel approach for indirectly detecting participation of the local population in illegal harvesting of Protected Areas (PAs) natural resources and its spatial distribution. The research was conducted in the Niassa National Reserve (NNR), the third-largest PA in Africa, and included a face-to-face survey to 339 households. The householders were asked about the importance of several threats to biodiversity conservation, including any illegal harvesting in which they may be involved. Non-recognition of these illegal activities as relevant threats to biodiversity is interpreted as likely indication household involvement in these activities. We also gathered evidence to support our inferences of participation in illegal resource harvesting, based on the respondents' perceptions of costs and benefits of living within the Protected Area (PA) and their opinions about conservation measures under implementation. The results showed that households that are more likely involved in illegal activities are poor, less educated, and mostly located near to the PA borders, where they bear higher costs while receiving fewer benefits than others of living in the interior of the NNR. Village respondents were more likely to admit participating in activities that they need to conduct to cope with their daily needs, activities not generally considered as a serious infraction by park authorities. • Poor and less educated households were more likely involved in illegal resources harvesting. • Illegal resources harvesting were more pronounced in the villages closer to the park borders. • Perceive benefits of park activities reduces likely of involvement in illegal resources extraction whithin the Park. • Households only admits involvement in illegal activities they need to conduct for sustain their daily livelihood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implementation of new conservation measures without consistent consultation with key stakeholders has resulted in multiple failures that have been replicated elsewhere. In this study, we propose and test an improved method to identify: (i) the role of conservation actors (including local people), in major threats to conservation in a particular Protected Area (PA); (ii) the underlying drivers for the involvement of local people in conservation-threatening practices; and, (iii) appropriate policies to address those drivers. The method was developed and tested in the context of the Niassa National Reserve (NNR), the third major PA for the conservation of Miombo woodlands, savannah keystones and umbrella species in Africa. Experts' answers were grouped according to opinions related to threats for conservation and current and proposed compensation schemes to improve conservation in the NNR. The results show a high degree of consensus among experts in relation to the current practices that threaten conservation in the reserve (poaching, illegal logging and mining). Local people were held responsible for activities that they carry out to meet their daily needs. While, outsiders carrying out illegal activities, were also responsible for practices that represent the top threats to conservation. The proposed new incentives, such as assisting local people with conservation agriculture, providing alternative sources of animal protein and providing scholarships for their children, may greatly improve the support of local people for biodiversity conservation in the reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]