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The Antarctic fish fauna from outer continental shelf/upper slope depths is under-sampled compared to that of the inner shelf, and there are limited quantitative data available on absolute abundance and taxonomic change with depth. A photographic survey of demersal fishes was conducted along a depth-gradient of 400–2099 m on the outer shelf and upper slope west of Anvers Island, Palmer Archipelago. A total of 1490 fishes were identified at least to the family level. Notothenioids composed 52.7% of absolute abundance and non-notothenioids 47.3%. The most abundant families were Nototheniidae (39.4%), followed by Macrouridae (28.9%), Zoarcidae (16.9%), and Channichthyidae (12.1%). The most abundant species were the notothenioids Lepidonotothen squamifrons (30.5%) and Chionobathyscus dewitti (11.7%), and the non-notothenioid Macrourus spp. (29.5%). The absolute abundance of all fishes peaked at 400–599 m. Depths of maximum abundance were 400–599 m for L. squamifrons, 700–1499 m for Macrourus spp., and 900–1499 for C. dewitti. At 700–999 m the abundance shifted from primarily notothenioids to the non-notothenioids Macrourus spp. and zoarcids. Fishes of the outer shelf and upper slope are not provincialized like those of the inner shelf and are circum-Antarctic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many species of macroalgae along the western Antarctic Peninsula have a high coverage of filamentous algal endophytes. A previous field study showed that endophyte presence negatively impacts growth and survival in some Antarctic algae, but can have no impact on others. We examined nine species of common macroalgal hosts from the area surrounding Palmer Station, Antarctica, to examine fine-scale impacts of endophyte presence on host physiology. Physiological parameters were selected based on their potential to influence fitness of host algae. These included photosynthetic parameters, thallus toughness and susceptibility to grazers in those species previously known to be chemically defended. We found that few macroalgal hosts are impacted by the presence of endophytes and that these impacts are not consistent across all physiological parameters.Iridaea cordataandPachymeniasp. were the only species among the nine examined that demonstrated physiological stress in the presence of endophytes. Out of four species in a previous study,I. cordatawas also the most heavily impacted by endophyte presence. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Hard bottom communities along the western Antarctic Peninsula region are dominated by thick macroalgal forests, which support high densities of mesograzers, particularly amphipods, and also numerous gastropods. The macroalgae are chemically defended from consumption by the mesograzers and other herbivores and they provide the mesograzers a chemically defended refuge from predation by omnivorous fish. The macroalgae benefit in return because the mesograzers remove epiphytic algae from them. Since these two assemblages are major components of the community, this can be viewed as a community-wide mutualism. Most subcomponents of these interactions have also been documented in lower latitude communities and the similarities and differences between the communities in Antarctica and in other regions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

mphipods along the western Antarctic Peninsula appear to gain refuge from predators by associating with chemically defended macroalgae rather than palatable macroalgae. However, nothing is known about amphipod activity at night. If foraging on non-chemically defended macroalgae regularly occurs, then nocturnal foraging seems beneficial since visual predators are disadvantaged. To test this hypothesis, we collected three common macroalgal species and affiliated mesograzers, approximately 3 h before and after sunset. All associated mesofauna were counted and densities recorded. Amphipod densities were significantly decreased during the night on the chemically defended Desmarestia menziesii, while significantly increased on the palatable Iridaea cordata. Additionally, the amphipod Gondogeneia antarctica was found in significantly higher densities at night on Palmaria decipiens, a species shown to be readily eaten by G. antarctica and omnivorous fish. We believe that chemically defended macroalgae act as a refuge for mesograzers during the day, while more widespread foraging occurs at night. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gut contents studies have shown that Notothenia coriiceps, a prevalent shallow water fish species along the western Antarctic Peninsula, has a highly variable diet. This variability, coupled with small home ranges, suggest that microhabitat may play a role in determining the chief prey items of N. coriiceps. We trapped fish from three sites comprised of two different algal microhabitats around Palmer Station, Antarctica and investigated their diets via gut contents and stable isotope analyses. Gut contents analysis revealed that amphipods were the primary prey item at all three sites, but the distribution of amphipod species eaten varied between sites. Other important prey classes were snails, limpets, algae and fish. Overall, the gut content data suggested that algal microhabitat was less important than geographic location in determining diet. On the other hand, stable isotope analysis indicated that fish from the Palmaria decipiens site were more enriched in both carbon and nitrogen than fish from Desmarestia menziesii sites. Hence, it would appear that in the longer term, algal microhabitat may influence fish diets and trophic relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been hypothesized that the extensive mesograzer community along the western Antarctic Peninsula regulates epiphytic algae as well as emergent filaments from endophytic species. Should grazing limit growth of fouling or potentially pathogenic microphytes, then Antarctic macrophytes may actually benefit from the remarkably high densities of mesograzer amphipods that occur in these waters. Although initially counterintuitive, the negative impacts of epi/endophyte fouling may outweigh stresses caused by limited amphipod grazing on chemically defended macrophytes by reducing stress from endo/epiphyte biomass. If so, then alleviating mesograzing stress should result in significant increases in endo/epiphytic biomass. To test this hypothesis, a mesocosm experiment was conducted. Individuals representing four common species of Antarctic macroalgae were placed in flow-through seawater mesocosms. Amphipods were added to five mesocosms at simulated natural densities, while the other five remained herbivore free. At the end of 7 weeks, endo/epiphytic growth on individual macrophytes was quantified. Most species of macroalgae demonstrated noticeably higher instances of endophyte coverage, epiphytic diversity, and diatom colonization in consumer-free mesocosms than in the presence of amphipods. These data suggest that macroalgae along the western Antarctic Peninsula rely on grazers to control populations of potentially harmful epiphytes. We hypothesize that the chemically defended macroalgal flora lives in mutualism with high densities of mesograzers, providing amphipods with shelter from predation while continually being cleaned of potentially harmful endo/epiphytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thirteen years ago in a review that appeared in the American Zoologist, we presented the first survey of the chemical and ecological bioactivity of Antarctic shallow-water marine invertebrates. In essence, we reported that despite theoretical predictions to the contrary the incidence of chemical defenses among sessile and sluggish Antarctic marine invertebrates was widespread. Since that time we and others have significantly expanded upon the base of knowledge of Antarctic marine invertebrates’ chemical ecology, both from the perspective of examining marine invertebrates in new, distinct geographic provinces, as well as broadening the evaluation of the ecological significance of secondary metabolites. Importantly, many of these studies have been framed within established theoretical constructs, particularly the Optimal Defense Theory. In the present article, we review the current knowledge of chemical ecology of benthic marine invertebrates comprising communities along the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP), a region of Antarctica that is both physically and biologically distinct from the rest of the continent. Our overview indicates that, similar to other regions of Antarctica, anti-predator chemical defenses are widespread among species occurring along the WAP. In some groups, such as the sponges, the incidence of chemical defenses against predation is comparable to, or even slightly higher than, that found in tropical marine systems. While there is substantial knowledge of the chemical defenses of benthic marine invertebrates against predators, much less is known about chemical anti-foulants. The sole survey conducted to date suggests that secondary metabolites in benthic sponges are likely to be important in the prevention of fouling by benthic diatoms, yet generally lack activity against marine bacteria. Our understanding of the sensory ecology of Antarctic benthic marine invertebrates, despite its great potential, remains in its infancy. For example, along the WAP, community-level non-consumptive effects occur when amphipods chemically sense fish predators and respond by seeking refuge in chemically-defended macroalgae. Such interactions may be important in releasing amphipods from predation pressure and facilitating their unusually high abundances along the WAP. Moreover, recent studies on the sensory biology of the Antarctic keystone sea star Odontaster validus indicate that chemotactile-mediated interactions between conspecifics and other sympatric predatory sea stars may have significant ramifications in structuring community dynamics. Finally, from a global environmental perspective, understanding how chemical ecology structures marine benthic communities along the WAP must increasingly be viewed in the context of the dramatic impacts of rapid climatic change now occurring in this biogeographic region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which investigates the habitat choice and predation avoidance of amphipods in the near-shore ecosystem of the western Antarctic Peninsula. It mentions that there are abundant numbers of amphipods on dominant brown alga Desmarestia menziesii because they are protected from herbivory. It affirms that amphipods change their preferred food according to predator cues. It relates that natural abundances of amphipods are influenced by both threat of predation and actual predation.

Nearshore marine benthic algal communities along the western Antarctic Peninsula harbour extremely high densities of amphipods that probably play important roles in nutrient and energy flow. This study extends our evaluation of the importance of amphipods in the nearshore Antarctic Peninsular benthic communities and focuses on sponge associations. We found a mean density of 542 amphipods per litre (L) sponge for twelve species of ecologically dominant sponges. The highest mean density (1295 amphipods per L sponge) occurred with Dendrilla membranosa Pallas. The amphipod community associated with the 12 sponges was diverse (38 species), with mean species richness values ranging from two to eight species. Mean Shannon diversity indices (H') ranged from 0.52 to 1.49. Amphipods did not appear to have obligate host relationships. Qualitative gut content analyses indicated that 12 of the 38 amphipod species were found with sponge spicules in their guts. However, only one of the amphipods, Echiniphimedia hodgsoni Walker, had considerable amounts of spicules in the gut. Organic lipophilic and hydrophilic extracts of the twelve sponges were presented in alginate food disks to a sympatric omnivorous amphipod in feeding bioassays and extracts of only two sponges deterred feeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five individuals, each from 13 common species of large macroalgae ('macrophytes') from the western Antarctic Peninsula, were surveyed for the presence of filamentous algal endophytes both macroscopically and microscopically using dissecting and compound microscopes. Of the 13 species surveyed, endophytes were either rare or absent in five. The remaining species all supported endophytes in most or usually all individuals with maximum endophyte densities per species ranging from 3% to 75% of the thallus area. Thallus fragments from all individuals with endophytes were placed into culture, and 99 unialgal, filamentous brown algal strains were isolated. The ITS1 gene was sequenced in each strain to sort these into distinct genotypes. Brown algal endophytes grew well in culture, and 10 distinct filamentous genotypes were present. The green endophytes did not grow well in culture, and only two green algal species present in the thallus fragments were isolated. No-choice feeding rate bioassays were performed with thallus fragments of all 13 macrophyte species and with cultures of seven filamentous brown endophytes and both green endophytes. Feeding rates on the endophytes were 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than rates on 12 of the macrophyte species and 2- to 6-fold higher than on the only truly palatable macrophyte, Palmaria decipiens. These data support the hypothesis that Antarctic macrophytes are commonly endophytized and that the endophytes benefit from the association by being protected, at least in part, from amphipod herbivory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines one research which determines the palatability of all sponge species that can be collected in a shallow-water area along the western Antarctic Peninsula. These species, accordingly, can be found in sufficient quantities in the said area. After a few experiments of 27 species, it was revealed that 78 percent had outermost tissues that cannot be consumed by sea star Odontaster validus. It also revealed 62 percent of these species have outer tissues that are also unpalatable to the sea stars. Because of these findings, sponge species predators such as mesograzers were found to be of importance in communities along the Antarctic Peninsula.

The communities of gammaridean amphipods associated with eight dominant macroalgal species were examined near Palmer Station, Western Antarctic Peninsula. A total of 78,415 individuals belonging to 32 amphipod taxa were identified with mean densities ranging up to 20 individuals/g algal wet wt. The most abundant amphipod taxon, Metaleptamphopus pectinatus, was found to associate predominately with the brown alga Desmarestia menziesii, while the second most common taxon, Jassa spp. occurred primarily on the red alga Gigartina skottsbergii. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis demonstrated that the population densities of each amphipod species and amphipod species composition were similar on the same algal species but dissimilar on different species of algae. Comparisons of amphipod communities associated with a given algal species but from different sampling sites indicated that although the structure of species-specific macroalgal-associated amphipod communities can vary across spatial scales of 3 km, 50% of the macroalgal species examined showed no significant inter-site differences in associated amphipod community structure. Spearman rank correlation analyses showed that higher abundances of amphipods occurred on the macroalgae with the highest number of branches. As many Antarctic amphipods are known consumers of macroalgae, their remarkable abundances are likely to play a significant role in mediating energy and nutrient transfer in nearshore Antarctic Peninsular macroalgal communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sea stars Granaster nutrix and Neosmilaster georgianus are conspicuous members of benthic communities along the Antarctic Peninsula. An analysis of the proximate composition of somatic body components of nonreproductive adults indicates the nutrient storage organs (pyloric caeca) are rich in both protein (60.7 and 60.6% mean dry wt, respectively) and lipid (25.4 and 29.8% mean dry wt, respectively). Body-wall tissues, while containing small inconspicuous skeletal ossicles, are also comprised of significant levels of organic matter (33.5 and 55.7% mean dry wt, respectively), attributable primarily to protein. Both the pyloric caeca and body-wall tissues are relatively rich in energy (mean energy levels=24.8 and 26.5 kJ g−1 dry wt; 8.4 and 14.1 kJ g−1 dry wt, respectively). Despite the availability of these nutrients and energy neither sea star is preyed upon by the sympatric omnivorous sea star Odontaster validus, a common predator of other Antarctic sea stars. Laboratory feeding bioassays indicate that O. validus rejects live intact individuals and body-wall tissues of both sea star species while readily consuming dried krill. Alginate food pellets containing a krill powder and tissue level concentrations of organic methanol extracts of body-wall tissues were also rejected by O. validus. Moreover, the copious mucus released from the body wall of N. georgianus was deterrent in O. validus food pellet bioassays. Thus, both sea stars evidently possess defensive secondary metabolites that defend against predation and are likely to play a role in mediating materials and energy transfer in the Antarctic benthos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on several topics discussed during the Advances in Antarctic Marine Biology symposium on January 3-7, 2010 is presented. The symposium introduced the improvement of marine biology and physiology in Antarctic Peninsula, Antarctica. The symposium also featured eleven papers which covered topics on the chemical ecology of marine macroalgae and benthic invertebrates, the architecture of cardiomyocytes in hemoglobinless Channichthyids, and the dynamics of community in polar ecosystem.

Climate change impacts were investigated in two species of crustose Antarctic macroalgae that may be natural competitors in their habitat. The seawater parameters oceanic pH and temperature were modified to near future projections for the western Antarctic Peninsula in microcosm experiments. Experiments included two crustose algae, the calcified coralline alga Clathromorphum obtectulum and the fleshy encrusting rhodophyte Hildenbrandia sp., and were run for six weeks. Treatments reflected near future ocean conditions under climate change predictions: increased temperature (3.5 °C × pH 8.1), increased p CO 2 (1.5 °C × pH 7.8), combined factors (3.5 °C × pH 7.8), and ambient conditions (1.5 °C × pH 8.1). The physiological responses of the algae were evaluated through photosynthetic parameters (slope to saturation of photo centers (α), saturating irradiance (E k ), maximum electron transport rate (ETR max ), maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (F v /F m )), growth, chlorophyll a concentration, and for C. obtectulum calcium carbonate content and Mg/Ca ratio. No negative impacts of elevated temperature or increased p CO 2 were observed in either species. The fleshy alga decreased in size in low pH and high temperature treatments alone, but increased growth significantly when these factors were combined. Photosynthetic parameters were depressed by increased temperature in the calcified species and pH in the fleshy species but no significant differences were observed in other parameters in either species. This indicates that Hildenbrandia sp. may have a competitive advantage for space in the subtidal environment in near future oceanic conditions. However because benthic ecology in this geographic region is not well understood it is uncertain how these results will ultimately impact the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Whale falls provide a substantial, nutrient-rich resource for species in areas of the ocean that may otherwise be largely devoid of food. We report the discovery of a natural whale fall at 1430m depth in the cold waters of the continental slope off the western Antarctic Peninsula. This is the highest-latitude whale fall reported to date. The section of the carcass we observed—the tail fluke—was more complete than any previously reported natural whale fall from the deep sea and in the early stages of decomposition. We estimate the entire cetacean to measure 5–8m in length. The flesh remained almost intact on the carcass but the skin was missing from the entire section except for the end of the fluke, clearly exposing blubber and soft tissue. The absence of skin indicates rapid and Homogeneous loss. The dominant macrofauna present were crustaceans, including most prominently the lithodid crab Paralomis birsteini, and zoarcid fish typical of the ‘mobile-scavenger’ successional stage. The density of mobile macrofauna was greatest on the carcass and declined to background levels within 100m, indicating that they were attracted to the whale fall. This whale fall offers an important opportunity to examine the decomposition of a carcass under deep-sea conditions at polar latitudes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]