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The article discusses the translational benefits of space medicine for rural and remote perioperative medicine. Topics include ways high-quality perioperative medicine improves the patient experience of surgery, considerations that need to be made regarding the requirements needed to allow remote perioperative medicine to mirror the advancements in space medicine, and significance of the delivery of high-qualitative perioperative care in Australian rural and remote medicine.

Background: Adverse social circumstances are a key factor in health outcomes. Hospitals are an opportune setting for assessing and addressing the unmet social needs of patients, however, the readiness of healthcare workers in hospitals to undertake such tasks requires further exploration in the Australian context. This study aimed to generate a theory of doctors' and nurses' readiness to assess and address patients' social needs in a hospital setting.Methods: A constructivist grounded theory methodology was applied, with purposive and theoretical sampling used to gather diverse perspectives of readiness during semi-structured interviews with twenty senior doctors and nurses from a variety of clinical specialties working in hospitals serving communities experiencing inequitable social and health outcomes. Line-by-line coding, memo writing, and diagramming were used in analysis to construct an interpretive theory of readiness. Application of constant comparison analytic processes were used to test the robustness of the theory.Results: The readiness of doctors and nurses varies across individuals and departments, and is founded upon a state of being comfortable and confident to assess social need as determined by a range of personal attributes (e.g. knowledge of social need; skills to assess social need); a state of being willing and prepared to assess and address social need facilitated by supportive environments (e.g. departmental culture); and enabling characteristics of the clinical encounter (e.g. time, rapport).Conclusions: We found that the readiness of doctors and nurses is dynamic and impacted by a complex interplay of personal attributes along with contextual and situational factors. These findings indicate that any efforts to strengthen the readiness of doctors and nurses to assess and address social needs must target personal capabilities in addition to characteristics of the working environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People living with HIV (PLHIV) have high rates of tobacco smoking, and smoking is a leading cause of premature mortality and morbidity. It is important to understand HIV healthcare providers' practices and attitudes towards addressing smoking with their patients. An online survey that measured: (i) use of the 5A framework for addressing smoking (Ask, Assess, Advise, Assist, Arrange) and (ii) attitudes and barriers to addressing smoking cessation was distributed by relevant professional bodies. Eligible participants were Australian health practitioners providing healthcare to PLHIV. Of the 179 respondents, most reported practising at least one of the 5As: Ask (94%); Assess (78%); Advise (82%); Assist (89%); and Arrange (73%). Practising the full 5A framework (completing at least one activity from each A) was less common (62%) and associated with having undertaken smoking cessation training (OR 2.1, CI 1.1-3.9), being a medical practitioner (OR 6.0, CI 3.1-11.6), having greater perceived knowledge and resources (OR 1.7, CI 1.3-2.4) and more positive attitudes (OR 1.5, CI 1.1-2.0). Common barriers to delivering cessation assistance related to knowledge and availability of resources. Development and greater dissemination of effective smoking cessation training and resources may be required to ensure healthcare practitioners have the capacity to complete all aspects of the 5A framework for smoking cessation and support their patients with HIV who smoke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To determine trends in and predictors of early treatment for people newly diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in Australia. Design, setting: Retrospective cohort analysis of routinely collected longitudinal data from 44 sexual health clinics participating in the Australian Collaboration for Coordinated Enhanced Sentinel Surveillance (ACCESS) program. Participants: Patients diagnosed with HIV infections, January 2004 – June 2015. Main outcome measures: Commencement of antiretroviral therapy within 6 months of HIV diagnosis (early treatment); demographic, clinical, and risk group characteristics of patients associated with early treatment; trends in early treatment, by CD4+ cell count at diagnosis. Results: 917 people were diagnosed with HIV infections, their median age was 34 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 27–43 years), and 841 (92%) were men; the median CD4+ cell count at diagnosis was 510 cells/μL (IQR, 350–674 cells/μL). The proportion of patients who received early treatment increased from 17% (15 patients) in 2004–06 to 20% (34 patients) in 2007–09, 34% (95 patients) in 2010–12, and 53% (197 patients) in 2013–15 (trend, P < 0.001). The probability of early treatment, which increased with time, was higher for patients with lower CD4+ cell counts and higher viral loads at diagnosis. Conclusions: The proportion of people newly diagnosed with HIV in sexual health clinics in Australia who received treatment within 6 months of diagnosis increased from 17% to 53% during 2004–2015, reflecting changes in the CD4+ cell count threshold in treatment guidelines. Nevertheless, further strategies are needed to maximise the benefits of treatment to prevent viral transmission and morbidity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Rectal infection with Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the most common bacterial sexually transmissible infections among men who have sex with men (MSM) with diagnosis rates continuing to rise. Current treatment guidelines recommend either azithromycin 1 g single dose or doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 7 days. However, there are increasing concerns about treatment failure with azithromycin. We are conducting the first randomised controlled trial (RCT) to compare treatment efficacy of azithromycin versus doxycycline for the treatment of rectal chlamydia in MSM.Methods/design: The Rectal Treatment Study will recruit 700 MSM attending Australian sexual health clinics for the treatment of rectal chlamydia. Participants will be asked to provide rectal swabs and will be randomised to either azithromycin 1 g single dose or doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 7 days. Participants will be asked to complete questionnaires about adverse drug reactions, sexual behaviour and drug adherence via short message service and online survey. The primary outcome is the treatment efficacy as determined by a negative chlamydia nucleic acid amplification test at 4 weeks post treatment. Secondary outcomes will utilise whole genome sequencing and mRNA assay to differentiate between treatment failure, reinfection or false positive results.Discussion: Rectal chlamydia is an increasing public health concern as use of pre-exposure prophylaxis against HIV becomes commonplace. Optimal, evidence-based treatment is critical to halting ongoing transmission. This study will provide the first RCT evidence comparing azithromycin and doxycycline for the treatment of rectal chlamydia. The results of this trial will establish which treatment is more efficacious and inform international management guidelines.Trial Registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12614001125617. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of antiviral agents used against Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection and hepatitis B virus (HBV) mono or co-infection have been associated with real nephrotoxicity (including tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), atazanavir, indinavir and lopinavir) or apparent changes in renal function (e.g. cobicistat, ritonavir, rilpivirine and dolutegravir). Patients with HIV are at higher risk of acute and chronic renal dysfunction, so baseline assessment and ongoing monitoring of renal function is an important part of routine management of patients with HIV. Given the paucity of evidence in this area, we sought to establish a consensus view on how routine monitoring could be performed in Australian patients on ART regimens, especially those involving TDF. A group of nephrologists and prescribers (an HIV physician and a hepatologist) were assembled by Gilead to discuss practical and reasonable renal management strategies for patients particularly those on TDF-based combination regimens (in the case of those with HIV-infection) or on TDF-monotherapy (in the case of HBV-mono infection). The group considered which investigations should be performed as part of routine practice, their frequency, and when specialist renal referral is warranted. The algorithm presented suggests testing for serum creatinine along with plasma phosphate and an assessment of urinary protein (rather than albumin) and glucose. Here we advocate baseline tests of renal function at initiation of therapy. If creatinine excretion inhibitors (e.g. cobicistat or rilpivirine) are used as part of the ART regimen, we suggest creatinine is rechecked at 4 weeks and this value used as the new baseline. Repeat testing is suggested at 3-monthly intervals for a year and then at least yearly thereafter if no abnormalities are detected. In patients with abnormal baseline results, renal function assessment should be performed at least 6 monthly. In HBV mono-infected patients advocate that a similar testing protocol may be logical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Rectal chlamydia is a common bacterial sexually transmissible infection among men who have sex with men. Data from randomized, controlled trials are needed to guide treatment., Methods: In this double-blind trial conducted at five sexual health clinics in Australia, we randomly assigned men who have sex with men and who had asymptomatic rectal chlamydia to receive doxycycline (100 mg twice daily for 7 days) or azithromycin (1-g single dose). Asymptomatic chlamydia was selected as the trial focus because more than 85% of men with rectal chlamydia infection are asymptomatic, and clinical guidelines recommend a longer treatment course for symptomatic infection. The primary outcome was a negative nucleic acid amplification test for rectal chlamydia (microbiologic cure) at 4 weeks., Results: From August 2016 through August 2019, we enrolled 625 men (314 in the doxycycline group and 311 in the azithromycin group). Primary outcome data were available for 290 men (92.4%) in the doxycycline group and 297 (95.5%) in the azithromycin group. In the modified intention-to-treat population, a microbiologic cure occurred in 281 of 290 men (96.9%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 94.9 to 98.9) in the doxycycline group and in 227 of 297 (76.4%; 95% CI, 73.8 to 79.1) in the azithromycin group, for an adjusted risk difference of 19.9 percentage points (95% CI, 14.6 to 25.3; P<0.001). Adverse events that included nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting were reported in 98 men (33.8%) in the doxycycline group and in 134 (45.1%) in the azithromycin group (risk difference, -11.3 percentage points; 95% CI, -19.5 to -3.2)., Conclusions: A 7-day course of doxycycline was superior to single-dose azithromycin in the treatment of rectal chlamydia infection among men who have sex with men. (Funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council; RTS Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number, ACTRN12614001125617.)., (Copyright © 2021 Massachusetts Medical Society.)

Objective and importance of study: Considerable evidence suggests that adverse social determinants of health (SDH), such as poor education, unemployment, food and housing insecurity, interpersonal violence, inadequate social support and poverty, are key determinants of health and wellbeing. This prospective cohort study piloted a screening tool to collect individual SDH data in a South Australian hospital inpatient population. We explored participants' attitudes to SDH screening in brief follow-up interviews., Methods: This mixed-methods study used an SDH screening tool to collect individual-level SDH data from inpatients living in a highly disadvantaged socio-economic area. Participants had a primary diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart failure (HF) or diabetes mellitus. Follow-up interviews were completed post discharge via telephone. Descriptive statistics were employed to examine the prevalence and type of adverse SDH reported by the sample. Thematic analysis was applied to explore participants' attitudes to the screening., Results: The sample population (N = 37) reported a substantial burden of a range of adverse SDH (mean 4.7 adverse SDH experienced per participant, standard deviation 2.8). Participants involved in follow-up interviews (n = 8) believed screening might enhance communication between healthcare providers and patients and assist in identifying underlying social problems., Conclusion: A screening tool for SDH was successfully used to collect individual-level data in a hospital setting. An array of adverse SDH was common in the sample population. Participants believed screening for SDH may potentially benefit doctors and patients. A larger study is required to more robustly characterise the adverse SDH affecting individuals in this population and to explore how the healthcare system might effectively intervene., Competing Interests: MB has received research grants (paid to his institution) from Gilead Sciences and honoraria from Gilead Sciences and ViiV Healthcare for participation in HIV advisory boards and the preparation and delivery of educational presentations.

Aim: The objective was to study the long-term (lifetime) cost effectiveness of four different hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment models of care (MOC) with directly acting antiviral drugs., Methods: A cohort Markov model-based probabilistic cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) was undertaken extrapolating to up to 30 years from cost and outcome data collected from a primary study involving a real-life Australian cohort. In this study, noncirrhotic patients treated for HCV from 1 March 2016 to 28 February 2017 at four major public hospitals and liaising sites in South Australia were studied retrospectively. The MOC were classified depending on the person providing patient workup, treatment and monitoring into MOC1 (specialist), MOC2 (mixed specialist and hepatitis nurse), MOC3 (hepatitis nurse) and MOC4 (general practitioner, GP). Incremental costs were estimated from the Medicare perspective. Incremental outcomes were estimated based on the quality-adjusted life years (QALY) gained by achieving a sustained virological response. A cost-effectiveness threshold of Australian dollar 50 000 per QALY gained, the implicit criterion used for assessing the cost-effectiveness of new pharmaceuticals and medical services in Australia was assumed. Net monetary benefit (NMB) estimates based on this threshold were calculated., Results: A total of 1373 patients, 64% males, mean age 50 (SD ±11) years, were studied. In the CEA, MOC4 and MOC2 clearly dominated MOC1 over 30 years with lower costs and higher QALYs. Similarly, NMB was the highest in MOC4, followed by MOC2., Conclusion: Decentralized care using GP and mixed consultant nurse models were cost-effective ways of promoting HCV treatment uptake in the setting of unrestricted access to new antivirals.

Background: There have been improvements in combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) over the past 15 years. The aim of this analysis was to assess whether improvements in ART have resulted in improvements in surrogates of HIV outcome., Methods: Patients in the Australian HIV Observational Database who initiated treatment using mono/duo therapy prior to 1996, or using cART from 1996 onwards, were included in the analysis. Patients were stratified by era of ART initiation. Median changes in CD4(+) T-cell count and the proportion of patients with detectable HIV viral load (>400 copies/ml) were calculated over the first 4 years of treatment. Probabilities of treatment switch were estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method., Results: A total of 2,753 patients were included in the analysis: 28% initiated treatment <1996 using mono/duo therapy and 72% initiated treatment ≥1996 using cART (30% 1996-1999, 12% 2000-2003, 11% 2004-2007 and 19% ≥2008). Overall CD4(+) T-cell count response improved by later era of initiation (P<0.001), although 2000-2003 CD4(+) T-cell count response was less than that for 1996-1999 (P=0.007). The average proportion with detectable viral load from 2 to 4 years post-treatment commencement by era was: <1996 mono/duo 0.69 (0.67-0.71), 1996-1999 cART 0.29 (0.28-0.30), 2000-2003 cART 0.22 (0.20-0.24), 2004-2007 cART 0.09 (0.07-0.10) and ≥2008 cART 0.04 (0.03-0.05). Probability of treatment switch at 4 years after initiation decreased from 53% in 1996-1999 to 29% after 2008 (P<0.001)., Conclusions: Across the five time-periods examined, there have been incremental improvements for patients initiated on cART, as measured by overall response (viral load and CD4(+) T-cell count) and also increased durability of first-line ART regimens.

Background: Recent studies suggest higher cumulative HIV viremia exposure measured as viremia copy-years (VCY) is associated with increased all-cause mortality. The objectives of this study are (1) report the association between VCY and all-cause mortality and (2) assess associations between common patient characteristics and VCY., Methods: Analyses were based on patients recruited to the Australian HIV Observational Database (AHOD) who had received ≥24 weeks of antiretroviral therapy (ART). We established VCY after 1, 3, 5, and 10 years of ART by calculating the area under the plasma viral load time series. We used survival methods to determine the association between high VCY and all-cause mortality. We used multivariable mixed-effect models to determine predictors of VCY. We compared a baseline information model with a time-updated model to evaluate discrimination of patients with high VCY., Results: Of the 3021 AHOD participants who initiated ART, 2073 (69%), 1667 (55%), 1267 (42%), and 638 (21%) were eligible for analysis at 1, 3, 5, and 10 years of ART, respectively. Multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio association between all-cause mortality and high VCY was statistically significant, hazard ratio 1.52 (1.09, 2.13), P = 0.01. Predicting high VCY after 1 year of ART for a time-updated model compared with a baseline information model, the area under the sensitivity/specificity curve was 0.92 vs. 0.84; and at 10 years of ART, area under the sensitivity/specificity curve was 0.87 vs. 0.61, respectively., Conclusion: A high cumulative measure of viral load after initiating ART is associated with increased risk of all-cause mortality. Identifying patients with high VCY is improved by incorporating time-updated information.

Background: In the Asia-Pacific region many countries have adopted the WHO's public health approach to HIV care and treatment. We performed exploratory analyses of the factors associated with first major modification to first-line combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) in resource-rich and resource-limited countries in the region., Methods: We selected treatment naive HIV-positive adults from the Australian HIV Observational Database (AHOD) and the TREAT Asia HIV Observational Database (TAHOD). We dichotomised each country's per capita income into high/upper-middle (T-H) and lower-middle/low (T-L). Survival methods stratified by income were used to explore time to first major modification of first-line ART and associated factors. We defined a treatment modification as either initiation of a new class of antiretroviral (ARV) or a substitution of two or more ARV agents from within the same ARV class., Results: A total of 4250 patients had 961 major modifications to first-line ART in the first five years of therapy. The cumulative incidence (95% CI) of treatment modification was 0.48 (0.44-0.52), 0.33 (0.30-0.36) and 0.21 (0.18-0.23) for AHOD, T-H and T-L respectively. We found no strong associations between typical patient characteristic factors and rates of treatment modification. In AHOD, relative to sites that monitor twice-yearly (both CD4 and HIV RNA-VL), quarterly monitoring corresponded with a doubling of the rate of treatment modifications. In T-H, relative to sites that monitor once-yearly (both CD4 and HIV RNA-VL), monitoring twice-yearly corresponded to a 1.8 factor increase in treatment modifications. In T-L, no sites on average monitored both CD4 & HIV RNA-VL concurrently once-yearly. We found no differences in rates of modifications for once- or twice-yearly CD4 count monitoring., Conclusions: Low-income countries tended to have lower rates of major modifications made to first-line ART compared to higher-income countries. In higher-income countries, an increased rate of RNA-VL monitoring was associated with increased modifications to first-line ART.

Objective: Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has greatly improved the life expectancy of people living with HIV (PLHIV). Our study aims to project the life expectancy of PLHIV in a resource-rich setting in the context of the currently available antiretroviral treatments., Methods: Patient antiretroviral treatment data were sourced from an observational cohort of 3434 predominantly male (94.2%) PLHIV in Australia over the period 1997-2010. These data were analyzed in a computer simulation model to calculate the distribution of time until exhaustion of all treatment options and expected effect on mortality. Standardized mortality ratios were used to simulate expected survival before and after treatment exhaustion., Results: We estimated that the median time until exhaustion of currently available treatment options is 45.5 years [interquartile range (IQR) 34.0-61.0 years]. However, 10% of PLHIV are expected to exhaust all currently available cART options after just 25.6 years. PLHIV who start currently available cART regimens at age 20 years are expected to live to a median age of 67.4 (IQR 53.2-77.7) years. This is a substantial improvement on no cART [27.7 (IQR 23.8-32.0) years] but is still substantially less than the median general population mortality age [82.2 (IQR 74.0-87.8) years]. The life expectancy gap between PLHIV and the general population is greatest for those infected at younger ages., Conclusion: As treatment options are exhausted, a substantial difference in life expectancy between PLHIV and the general population could be expected even in resource-rich settings, particularly for people who acquire HIV at a younger age or who are currently highly treatment experienced.