Search

Aim: Shifts in diversification rates of Australian flora and fauna have been associated with aridification, but the relationship between diversification rates and aridity has never been quantified. We employed multiple approaches to reconstruct paleoenvironments of Australia for the first time. We used this information, and phylogenetic‐based analyses, to explore how changes in temperature and increasing aridity during the Neogene influenced the diversification of the Australian blindsnakes. We tested whether diversification rates differ between arid‐adapted and mesic‐adapted lineages. Taxon: Typhlopidae, Anilios blindsnakes. Location: Australia. Materials and Methods: We estimated the historical biogeography of blindsnakes using BioGeoBEARS. We synthesised multiple approaches to reconstruct paleotemperature and paleoaridity of Australia during the Neogene. We fitted several birth‐death models and estimated diversification rates under paleoenvironmental conditions using RPANDA. We further compared diversification rates between arid‐adapted lineages versus mesic‐adapted lineages using ClaDS and GeoHiSSE. Results: Ancestral area estimation indicated Australian blindsnakes have tropical grassland origins. We found that Australia‐specific regional paleotemperature and paleoaridity provided a better explanation for diversification rate variation than global paleotemperature. Specifically, our best‐fitting model indicated that speciation rates of blindsnakes decreased with increasing aridity. We found no difference in diversification rates between arid‐ and mesic‐adapted lineages. Main Conclusions: Soon after dispersing to Australia, the common ancestors of Australian blindsnakes diversified rapidly in mesic habitats during the early Miocene. However, as the continent became increasingly arid, diversification rates decreased. We found that shifts in the environment led to the emergence of two major clades: one remaining in primarily mesic habitats and the other adapting to the expanding arid biome. Our results emphasise the importance of both arid and tropical biomes as sources and sinks of diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How biotic and abiotic factors act together to shape biological diversity is a major question in evolutionary biology. The recent availability of large datasets and development of new methodological approaches provide new tools to evaluate the predicted effects of ecological interactions and geography on lineage diversification and phenotypic evolution. Here, we use a near complete phylogenomic‐scale phylogeny and a comprehensive morphological dataset comprising more than a thousand specimens to assess the role of biotic and abiotic processes in the diversification of monitor lizards (Varanidae). This charismatic group of lizards shows striking variation in species richness among its clades and multiple instances of endemic radiation in Indo‐Australasia (i.e., the Indo‐Australian Archipelago and Australia), one of Earth's most biogeographically complex regions. We found heterogeneity in diversification dynamics across the family. Idiosyncratic biotic and geographic conditions appear to have driven diversification and morphological evolution in three endemic Indo‐Australasian radiations. Furthermore, incumbency effects partially explain patterns in the biotic exchange between Australia and New Guinea. Our results offer insight into the dynamic history of Indo‐Australasia, the evolutionary significance of competition, and the long‐term consequences of incumbency effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybridization between species occurs more frequently in vertebrates than traditionally thought, but distinguishing ancient hybridization from other phenomena that generate similar evolutionary patterns remains challenging. Here, we used a comprehensive workflow to discover evidence of ancient hybridization between the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) from Indonesia and a common ancestor of an Australian group of monitor lizards known colloquially as sand monitors. Our data comprise |$>$| 300 nuclear loci, mitochondrial genomes, phenotypic data, fossil and contemporary records, and past/present climatic data. We show that the four sand monitor species share more nuclear alleles with |$V$|⁠. komodoensis than expected given a bifurcating phylogeny, likely as a result of hybridization between the latter species and a common ancestor of sand monitors. Sand monitors display phenotypes that are intermediate between their closest relatives and |$V$|⁠. komodoensis. Biogeographic analyses suggest that |$V$|⁠. komodoensis and ancestral sand monitors co-occurred in northern Australia. In agreement with the fossil record, this provides further evidence that the Komodo dragon once inhabited the Australian continent. Our study shows how different sources of evidence can be used to thoroughly characterize evolutionary histories that deviate from a treelike pattern, that hybridization can have long-lasting effects on phenotypes, and that detecting hybridization can improve our understanding of evolutionary and biogeographic patterns.[Biogeography; introgression; Komodo dragon; phylogenetic networks; phylogenomics; reticulation; Varanus. ] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The Australian deserts are home to a remarkable diversity of taxa that might appear to have evolved in the absence of topographic and physical barriers to dispersal. In fact this is a biogeographical illusion, as the dunefields of the modern arid zone obscure the fossil landscapes of the wet desert that existed for much of the Cenozoic. As the geohistory of Australia's arid zone is not widely understood by biologists, we review its geological development and contemporary landscapes in an accessible way, and describe eight biogeographical hypotheses centred on how geomorphology, evolutionary history and contemporary ecological factors interact to shape diversification patterns in the desert lowlands. Location: Australia. Taxon: Lizards. Methods: We review the arid zone landscapes before and after the development of the vast dunefields. As lizards represent a significant component of genetic studies that sample widely across the arid biome, we focus on this taxonomic group to establish emerging patterns. Results: Recent geological work suggests that the dunefields never formed extensive mobile landscapes such as in the Sahara, but rather were a mosaic of vegetated and stable dune surfaces with scattered bare, mobile patches. Large fluvial systems in the eastern arid zone during the Pleistocene also are at odds with the general perception of an arid landscape during this time. Incorporating this geohistorical insight, understanding where landscape heterogeneity is greatest within the arid zone, and where relative homogeneity might facilitate connectivity and gene flow, are at the heart of our biogeographic hypotheses. Main conclusions: Patterns are emerging that reflect the underlying influence of geomorphological processes on the genetic structure of Australian desert taxa. Quantifying finer‐scale edaphic complexity across the arid zone, widespread genetic sampling from disparate taxonomic groups, and a more detailed understanding of species ecology and life history will greatly improve our understanding of the ecological and historical drivers of diversity gradients in the Australian deserts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of genome sizes across the tree of life is of key interest in evolutionary biology. Various correlates of variation in genome size, such as accumulation of transposable elements (TEs) or rate of DNA gain and loss, are well known, but the underlying molecular mechanisms driving or constraining genome size are poorly understood. Here, we study one of the smallest genomes among frogs characterized thus far, that of the ornate burrowing frog (Platyplectrum ornatum) from Australia, and compare it to other published frog and vertebrate genomes to examine the forces driving reduction in genome size. At ~1.06 gigabases (Gb), the P. ornatum genome is like that of birds, revealing four major mechanisms underlying TE dynamics: reduced abundance of all major classes of TEs; increased net deletion bias in TEs; drastic reduction in intron lengths; and expansion via gene duplication of the repertoire of TE-suppressing Piwi genes, accompanied by increased expression of Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA)-based TE-silencing pathway genes in germline cells. Transcriptomes from multiple tissues in both sexes corroborate these results and provide insight into sex-differentiation pathways in Platyplectrum. Genome skimming of two closely related frog species (Lechriodus fletcheri and Limnodynastes fletcheri) confirms a reduction in TEs as a major driver of genome reduction in Platyplectrum and supports a macroevolutionary scenario of small genome size in frogs driven by convergence in life history, especially rapid tadpole development and tadpole diet. The P. ornatum genome offers a model for future comparative studies on mechanisms of genome size reduction in amphibians and vertebrates generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia hosts approximately 10% of the world's reptile species, the largest number of any country. Despite this and evidence of widespread decline, the first comprehensive assessment of the conservation status of Australian terrestrial squamates (snakes and lizards) was undertaken only recently. Here we apply structured expert elicitation to the 60 species assessed to be in the highest IUCN threat categories to estimate their probability of extinction by 2040. We also assessed the probability of successful reintroduction for two Extinct in the Wild (EW) Christmas Island species with trial reintroductions underway. Collation and analysis of expert opinion indicated that six species are at high risk (>50%) of becoming extinct within the next 20 years, and up to 11 species could be lost within this timeframe unless management improves. The consensus among experts was that neither of the EW species were likely to persist outside of small fenced areas without a significant increase in resources for intense threat management. The 20 most imperilled species are all restricted in range, with three occurring only on islands. The others are endemic to a single state, with 55% occurring in Queensland. Invasive species (notably weeds and introduced predators) were the most prevalent threats, followed by agriculture, natural system modifications (primarily fire) and climate change. Increased resourcing and management intervention are urgently needed to avert the impending extinction of Australia's imperilled terrestrial reptiles. The first comprehensive assessment of conservation status for Australian terrestrial squamates was undertaken only recently. We used structured expert elicitation to complement and extend this work by identifying the species in most immediate risk of extinction. Of the 60 species assessed, six had high likelihoods of extinction (>50%) in the next 20 years, and up to 11 species could be lost within this timeframe without substantial improvements to current management regimes. Increased resourcing and management intervention are urgently needed to avert future extinctions of Australia's reptiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Southwest Australia (SWA) is a global biodiversity hotspot and a centre of diversity and endemism for the Australo-Papuan myobatrachid frogs. Myobatrachus gouldii (the turtle frog) has a highly derived morphology associated with its forward burrowing behaviour, largely subterranean habit, and unusual mode of reproduction. Its sister genera Metacrinia and Arenophryne have restricted distributions in Western Australia with significant phylogeographic structure, leading to the recent description of a new species in the latter. In contrast, Myobatrachus is distributed widely throughout SWA over multiple climatic zones, but little is known of its population structure, geographic variation in morphology, or reproduction. We generated molecular and morphological data to test for genetic and morphological variation, and to assess whether substrate specialisation in this species may have led to phylogeographic structuring similar to that of other plant and animal taxa in SWA. We assembled sequence data for one mitochondrial and four nuclear DNA loci (3628 base pairs) for 42 turtle frogs sampled throughout their range. Likelihood phylogenetic analyses revealed shallow phylogeographic structure in the mtDNA locus (up to 3.3% genetic distance) and little variation in three of the four nDNA loci. The mtDNA haplotype network suggests five geographically allopatric groups, with no shared haplotypes between regions. These geographic patterns are congruent with several other SWA species, with genetic groups restricted to major hydrological divisions, the Swan Coastal Plain, and the Darling Scarp. The geographically structured genetic groups showed no evidence of significant morphological differentiation (242 individuals), and there was little sexual size dimorphism, but subtle differences in reproductive traits suggest more opportunistic breeding in lower rainfall zones. Call data were compared to sister genera Metacrinia and Arenophryne and found to be highly conservative across the three genera. Like many taxa in SWA, topographic variation and Plio-Pleistocene arid fluctuations likely were historic drivers of diversification in M. gouldii. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species diversification often results from divergent evolution of ecological or social signaling traits. Theoretically, a combination of the two may promote speciation, however, empirical examples studying how social signal and ecological divergence might be involved in diversification are rare in general and typically do not consider range overlap as a contributing factor. We show that ecologically distinct lineages within the Australian sand dragon species complex (including Ctenophorus maculatus, Ctenophorus fordi, and Ctenophorus femoralis) have diversified recently, diverging in ecologically relevant and social signaling phenotypic traits as arid habitats expanded and differentiated.Diversification has resulted in repeated and independent invasion of distinct habitat types, driving convergent evolution of similar phenotypes. Our results suggest that parapatry facilitates diversification in visual signals through reinforcement as a hybridization-avoidance mechanism. We show that particularly striking variation in visual social signaling traits is better explained by the extent of lineage parapatry relative to ecological or phylogenetic divergence, suggesting that these traits reinforce divergence among lineages initiated by ecologically adaptive evolution. This study provides a rare empirical example of a repeated, intricate relationship between ecological and social signal evolution during diversification driven by ecological divergence and the evolution of new habitats, thereby supporting emergent theories regarding the importance of both ecological and social trait evolution throughout speciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Death adders (genus Acanthophis) differ from most other elapid snakes, and resemble many viperid snakes, in their thickset morphology and ambush foraging mode. Although these snakes are widely distributed through Australia and Papua New Guinea, their basic biology remains poorly known. We report morphological and ecological data based upon dissection of >750 museum specimens drawn from most of the range of the genus. Female death adders grow larger than conspecific males, to about the same extent in all taxa (20% in mean adult snout-vent length,  =  SVL). Most museum specimens were adult rather than juvenile animals, and adult males outnumbered females in all taxa except A. pyrrhus. Females have shorter tails (relative to SVL) than males, and longer narrower heads (relative to head length) in some but not all species. The southern A. antarcticus is wider-bodied (relative to SVL) than the other Australian species. Fecundity of these viviparous snakes was similar among taxa (mean litter sizes 8 to 14). Death adders encompass a broad range of ecological attributes, taking a wide variety of vertebrate prey, mostly lizards (55%), frogs and mammals (each 21%; based on 217 records). Dietary composition differed among species (e.g. frogs were more common in tropical than temperate-zone species), and shifted with snake body size (endotherms were taken by larger snakes) and sex (male death adders took more lizards than did females). Overall, death adders take a broader array of prey types, including active fast-moving taxa such as endotherms and large diurnal skinks, than do most other Australian elapids of similar body sizes. Ambush foraging is the key to capturing such elusive prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Our aim was to test hypothesized biogeographical barriers using small-bodied terrestrial Uperoleia frogs, to identify Pleistocene refugia and to define biogeographical units. Location The Australian Monsoonal Tropics, defined as the open woodlands and savanna north of the inland arid and eastern winter-rainfall zones. Methods A multi-locus molecular phylogeny of the Uperoleia lithomoda, U. trachyderma and U. minima species complex, with supporting morphological and acoustic data, was generated to test species boundaries and clarify distributions. Ecological niche modelling with current climate and Last Glacial Maximum climate data was used to identify biogeographical units, barriers to dispersal, and regions of stability that may have served as Pleistocene refugia. Results Our combined data supported five clades that comprise four allopatric species. Ecological niche models of the resolved species suggest that the Kimberley Plateau represents a distinct bioregion, the Top End extends from the edge of the Kimberley Plateau to the Carpentarian Gap, and the transition from sandstone escarpments to flat, sandy soils represents a major barrier to dispersal between the Top End and the Northern Deserts. The Northern Deserts were found to comprise two distinct subregions. Population- and species-level divergences were evident in a north-south line in the Northern Territory, representing a newly identified biogeographical break. Putative Pleistocene refugia were predicted in the north-west Kimberley Plateau, the western half of the Top End, the Selwyn Range and western Cape York. Main conclusions By combining detailed genetic, morphological and acoustic data with newly developed statistical methods, we have delineated species boundaries, identified cryptic species and provided a region-wide assessment of the biogeography of northern Australia. We have identified previously unrecognized biogeographical barriers, better defined biogeographical regions, and proposed new hypotheses about the effects of Pleistocene climate cycles on the present-day diversity of northern Australia. Our work provides a solid foundation for the investigation of biogeographical patterns in other taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared to species turnover, patterns of phylogenetic turnover provide extra information about the spatial structure of biodiversity, for example providing more informative comparisons between the biota of sites which share no species. To harness this information for broad-scale spatial analysis, we present phylo-GDM, a technique for interpolating the spatial structure of phylogenetic turnover between sampled locations in relation to environment, based on generalised dissimilarity modelling (GDM). Using a database of over 150 000 location records for 114 myobatrachid frog species in Australia, linked to a species-level phylogeny inferred from 2467 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA, we calculated species and phylogenetic turnover between pairs of sites. We show how phylogenetic turnover extended the range of informative comparison of compositional turnover to more biologically and environmentally dissimilar sites. We generated GDM models which predict species and phylogenetic turnover across Australia, and tested the fit of models for different ages within the phylogeny to find the phylogenetic tree depth at which the relationship to current day environment is greatest. We also incorporated explanatory variables based on biogeographic patterns, to represent broad-scale turnover resulting from divergent evolutionary histories. We found that while the predictive power of our models was lower for full phylogenetic turnover than for species turnover, models based on the more recent components of the phylogeny (closer to the tips) outperformed species models and full phylogenetic models. Phylo-GDM has considerable potential as a method for incorporating phylogenetic relationships into biodiversity analyses in ways not previously possible. Because phylogenies do not require named taxa, phylo-GDM may also provide a means of including lineages with poorly resolved taxonomy (e.g. from metagenomic sequencing) into biodiversity planning and phylogeographic analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The isolated uplands of the Australian arid zone are known to provide mesic refuges in an otherwise xeric landscape, and divergent lineages of largely arid zone taxa have persisted in these regions following the onset of Miocene aridification. Geckos of the genus Heteronotia are one such group, and have been the subject of many genetic studies, including H. spelea, a strongly banded form that occurs in the uplands of the Pilbara and Central Ranges regions of the Australian arid zone. Here we assess the systematics of these geckos based on detailed examination of morphological and genetic variation. The H. spelea species complex is a monophyletic lineage to the exclusion of the H. binoei and H. planiceps species complexes. Within the H. spelea complex, our previous studies based on mtDNA and nine nDNA loci found populations from the Central Ranges to be genetically divergent from Pilbara populations. Here we supplement our published molecular data with additional data gathered from central Australian samples. In the spirit of integrative species delimitation, we combine multi-locus, coalescent-based lineage delimitation with extensive morphological analyses to test species boundaries, and we describe the central populations as a new species, H. fasciolatussp. nov. In addition, within the Pilbara there is strong genetic evidence for three lineages corresponding to northeastern (type), southern, and a large-bodied melanic population isolated in the northwest. Due to its genetic distinctiveness and extreme morphological divergence from all other Heteronotia, we describe the melanic form as a new species, H. atrasp. nov. The northeastern and southern Pilbara populations are morphologically indistinguishable with the exception of a morpho-type in the southeast that has a banding pattern resembling H. planiceps from the northern monsoonal tropics. Pending more extensive analyses, we therefore treat Pilbara H. spelea as a single species with phylogenetic structure and morphological heterogeneity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We review the biogeography of the Pilbara, synthesize information on the geological and landscape history of this region and surrounds, and assess fine-scale genetic structure across multiple taxa to examine hypotheses concerning the distribution of genetic lineages. We use this to provide a baseline for future biological studies in an ancient area of endemism. Location The Pilbara region, Western Australia. Methods Literature is summarized, including the history of Pilbara landscapes and climate, and previous biogeographical work. We used mitochondrial DNA phylogenetic datasets of seven co-distributed gecko (diplodactyline and gekkonine) lineages to assess the monophyly of Pilbara lineages, and concordance with geological and habitat divisions. Results The Pilbara harbours taxa genetically distinct from their non-Pilbara relatives, despite close geographical proximity of populations. This is emphasized at the eastern and southern margins of the Pilbara, where habitat gradients are pronounced. In contrast, the northern margin, where sandy substrates of the Pilbara meet the dunes of the northern deserts, exhibits little genetic differentiation. Within the Pilbara, diversification patterns are idiosyncratic and may reflect species-specific ecological differences. However, a repeated north/south partitioning of genetic diversity is evident across taxa. An additional emerging pattern is an east/west genetic division in the northern Pilbara, which may relate to major drainage divides and geological discontinuities associated with east and west Pilbara terrains. Main conclusions The Pilbara is an area of exceptionally high biotic diversity and endemism. The broader biogeographical patterns revealed in our molecular analyses are consistent with those recently identified using species richness patterns of invertebrates. Future studies of additional taxa using multiple molecular markers will provide the means to test and refine the biogeographical hypotheses presented here. Understanding the biogeography of the Pilbara and the partitioning of genetic diversity across the ancient and heterogeneous landscape is of paramount importance in the face of rapidly expanding economic and developmental pressures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The mesic biome, encompassing both rain forest and open sclerophyllous forests, is central to understanding the evolution of Australia's terrestrial biota and has long been considered the ancestral biome of the continent. Our aims are to review and refine key hypotheses derived from palaeoclimatic data and the fossil record that are critical to understanding the evolution of the Australian mesic biota. We examine predictions arising from these hypotheses using available molecular phylogenetic and phylogeographical data. In doing so, we increase understanding of the mesic biota and highlight data deficiencies and fruitful areas for future research. Location The mesic biome of Australia, along the eastern coast of Australia, and in the south-east and south-west, including its rain forest and sclerophyllous, often eucalypt-dominated, habitats. Methods We derived five hypotheses based on palaeoclimatic and fossil data regarding the evolution of the Australian mesic biota, particularly as it relates to the mesic biome. We evaluated predictions formulated from these hypotheses using suitable molecular phylogenies of terrestrial plants and animals and freshwater invertebrates. Results There was support for the ancestral position of mesic habitat in most clades, with support for rain forest habitat ancestry in some groups, while evidence of ancestry in mesic sclerophyllous habitats was also demonstrated for some plants and herpetofauna. Contraction of mesic habitats has led to extinction of numerous lineages in many clades and this is particularly evident in the rain forest component. Species richness was generally higher in sclerophyllous clades than in rain forest clades, probably due to higher rates of net speciation in the former and extinction in the latter. Although extinction has been prominent in rain forest communities, tropical rain forests appear to have experienced extensive immigration from northern neighbours. Pleistocene climatic oscillations have left genetic signatures at multiple levels of divergence and with complex geographical structuring, even in areas with low topographical relief and few obvious geographical barriers. Main conclusions Our review confirms long-held views of the ancestral position of the Australian mesic biome but also reveals new insights into the complexity of the processes of contraction, fragmentation, extinction and invasion during the evolution of this biome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses an experiment that aimed to determine whether candidates who look competent receive more votes than other candidates, focusing on the possible outcome of the 2008 U.S. presidential election. The researchers wanted to predict the two major party nominees and the results of the election as early as August 2007 by obtaining and examining facial competence ratings of 11 potential candidates for the Democratic Party nomination and 13 for the Republican Party nomination. High school and university students from Australia and New Zealand were asked to rate each candidate's competence by looking briefly at a photograph of his or her face.

Southwestern Australia is regarded as a global biodiversity hotspot. The region contains a high number of endemic species, ranging from Gondwanan relicts to much more recently evolved plant and animal species. Myobatrachid frogs are diverse in southwestern Australia, and while we know they have speciated in situ in the southwest, we know little about the temporal and geographical patterning of speciation events. Crinia georgiana is an ideal subject to test hypotheses concerning the effect of climatic history on southwestern Australian anurans, as it is an old lineage with a broad distribution covering the entire region. We compiled an extensive phylogeographical data set based on 1085 bp of the mitochondrial gene ND2 for 68 individuals from 18 sites across the species’ range. Two major genetic clades were identified which were largely confined to the high rainfall and southeast coastal biogeographical zones, respectively. The clades appear to have diverged around the Plio-Pleistocene border (1.26–1.72 million years ago), concordant with increasing intensity and frequency of arid climate cycles. Subsequent phylogeographical structure appears to have developed primarily during the Pleistocene climatic fluctuations that also have been integral in generating species diversity in the endemic southwestern Australian flora. Phylogeographical analyses identified several dispersal routes, possible refugial areas within the range of the species and also regions of secondary contact. Dispersal routes identified may now be closed to the species because of habitat destruction and salinity problems in inland regions, posing concerns about the evolutionary potential of the species in light of predicted climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract King brown snakes or mulga snakes (Pseudechis australis) are the largest and among the most dangerous and wide-ranging venomous snakes in Australia and New Guinea. They occur in diverse habitats, are important predators, and exhibit considerable morphological variation. We infer the relationships and historical biogeography of P. australis based on phylogenetic analysis of 1,249 base pairs from the mitochondrial cytochrome b, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 and three adjacent tRNA genes using Bayesian, maximum-likelihood, and maximum-parsimony methods. All methods reveal deep phylogenetic structure with four strongly supported clades comprising snakes from New Guinea (I), localities all over Australia (II), the Kimberleys of Western Australia (III), and north-central Australia (IV), suggesting a much more ancient radiation than previously believed. This conclusion is robust to different molecular clock estimations indicating divergence in Pliocene or Late Miocene, after landbridge dispersal to New Guinea had occurred. While members of clades I, III and IV are medium-sized, slender snakes, those of clade II attain large sizes and a robust build, rendering them top predators in their ecosystems. Genetic differentiation within clade II is low and haplotype distribution largely incongruent with geography or colour morphs, suggesting Pleistocene dispersal and recent ecomorph evolution. Significant haplotype diversity exists in clades III and IV, implying that clade IV comprises two species. Members of clade II are broadly sympatric with members of both northern Australian clades. Thus, our data support the recognition of at least five species from within P. australis (auct.) under various criteria. We discuss biogeographical, ecological and medical implications of our findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a well-known phenomenon that islands can support populations of gigantic or dwarf forms of mainland conspecifics, but the variety of explanatory hypotheses for this phenomenon have been difficult to disentangle. The highly venomous Australian tiger snakes (genus Notechis) represent a well-known and extreme example of insular body size variation. They are of special interest because there are multiple populations of dwarfs and giants and the age of the islands and thus the age of the tiger snake populations are known from detailed sea level studies. Most are 5000-7000 years old and all are less than 10,000 years old. Here we discriminate between two competing hypotheses with a molecular phylogeography dataset comprising approximately 4800 bp of mtDNA and demonstrate that populations of island dwarfs and giants have evolved five times independently. In each case the closest relatives of the giant or dwarf populations are mainland tiger snakes, and in four of the five cases, the closest relatives are also the most geographically proximate mainland tiger snakes. Moreover, these body size shifts have evolved extremely rapidly and this is reflected in the genetic divergence between island body size variants and mainland snakes. Within south eastern Australia, where populations of island giants, populations of island dwarfs, and mainland tiger snakes all occur, the maximum genetic divergence is only 0.38%. Dwarf tiger snakes are restricted to prey items that are much smaller than the prey items of mainland tiger snakes and giant tiger snakes are restricted to seasonally available prey items that are up three times larger than the prey items of mainland tiger snakes. We support the hypotheses that these body size shifts are due to strong selection imposed by the size of available prey items, rather than shared evolutionary history, and our results are consistent with the notion that adaptive plasticity also has played an important role in body size shifts. We... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been an enduring belief that increasing aridity combined with Pliocene-Pleistocene glacial cycles resulted in the formation of distinct arid zone and temperate zone faunas within Australia. We assembled a molecular phylogeny for the Egernia whitii species group, an endemic group of skinks that comprises representatives from arid and temperate Australia, in order to test several biogeographical hypotheses regarding the origin of the Australian arid zone fauna. Sequence data were obtained from ten of the 11 species within the species group, plus three other Egernia species and an outgroup (Eulamprus heatwolei). We targeted portions of the ND4 (696 base pairs) and 16S rRNA (500 bp) mitochondrial genes and the β-Fibrinogen 7th Intron nuclear gene (648 bp). The edited alignment comprised 1844 characters, of which 551 (30%) were variable and 382 (69%) were parsimony informative. We analysed the data using maximum likelihood and Bayesian techniques and produced a single optimal tree. Our phylogeny strongly supports two major clades within the species group, corresponding to temperate-adapted rock-dwelling species and arid-adapted obligate burrowing species. However, the phylogenetic affinities of E. pulchra were not resolved. Our topology indicates that the New South Wales population of E. margaretae is actually E. whitii and reveals that E. margaretae margaretae and E. m. personata are distinct species. There also appears to be a major phylogeographical break within E. whitii occurring in eastern Victoria. Although our data supported several previously proposed phylogenetic relationships, Shimodaira—Hasegawa tests soundly rejected several suggested affinities between certain species. The arid zone members of the E. whitii species group had been suggested to have originated as a result of multiple periods of colonization during the Pleistocene glaciation cycles. However, our genetic data suggest a single origin (presumably from a semiarid E. multiscutata-like ancestor) for the arid zone members of the group prior to the Plio-Pleistocene, probably during the late Miocene to early Pliocene. Our topology displays substantial sequence divergence between species with short internodes and long terminal branches, indicating rapid adaptive radiations within the arid and temperate zones. The presence of temperate-adapted species within more mesic refugia of the arid zone suggests that the necessary adaptations to aridity for colonizing the dry interior of the continent have not evolved since the initial period of adaptive radiation, despite the long evolutionary history of the species group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We isolated 25 new polymorphic microsatellite markers from the eastern mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki. Initially, 454 shotgun sequencing was used to identify 1187 loci for which primers could be designed. Of these 1187, we trialled 48 in the target species, 40 of which amplified a product of expected size. Subsequently, those 40 loci were screened for variation in 48 individuals from a single population in Canberra, Australia. Twenty loci were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and polymorphic, with observed heterozygosity ranging from 0.04 to 0.72 (mean: 0.45 ± 0.18) and the number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 5 (mean: 3.20 ± 1.05). These loci will be useful in understanding genetic variation, paternity analysis and in managing this species across both its native and invasive range. We isolated 25 new polymorphic microsatellite markers from the eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki). These markers will be useful in documenting the population genetics of the mosquitofish, an important pest in Australian freshwater ecosystems and a model species for evolutionary experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses the Simplified Chinese version of the Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering for Adults (OASES-A-SC) to examine the stuttering experience of people in China and determine if there are differences between the data collected in China and other countries. A total of 139 responses to the OASES-A-SC were collected in an online self-help community of people in China who stutter. Descriptive analyses were conducted to obtain the understanding of how stuttering impacts the life experience of people in China who stutter. Comparisons were conducted regarding the groups of gender, highest education, and therapy history. Cross-cultural comparisons among the data collected from China, Australia, the Netherlands, Japan, Sweden, and the USA were also conducted. The data for the OASES-A-SC showed a skewed distribution toward the severe end of the OASES-A impacting scale. About 93.5% participants rated the overall impact of stuttering on their life at and above the "Moderate" category. The mean scores of the General Information, Reaction to Stuttering, and Qualify of Life sections fell in the moderate-to-severe category. Compared with the data in other five countries, the Chinese data were significantly higher in the impact severity level. The results showed that people in China who stutter have more adverse experiences related to stuttering compared with their counterparts in western or developed countries. Higher negative attitudes toward stuttering in China, social stigma against people with disabilities, and the fewer professional supports were discussed to be associated with this more adverse experience. Cultural differences such as a greater power distance and higher collectivism in Chinese culture were considered to be associated with the elevated level of adverse impact of stuttering in China. • Scores for the Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering for Adults (OASES-A) collected in China skewed toward the severe end. • Scores for the OASES-A collected in China are significantly higher than scores collected in western countries. • The adverse impacts may be associated with the negative attitudes, social stigma, and less professional supports. • Stuttering experience of people in China may be impacted by the larger power distance and higher level of collectivism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relation between intrauterine growth and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia was investigated in an Australian population-based case-control study that included 347 cases and 762 controls aged <15 years recruited from 2003 to 2006. Information on proportion of optimal birth weight, a measure of the appropriateness of fetal growth, was collected from mothers by questionnaire. Data were analyzed by using logistic regression. Risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia was positively associated with proportion of optimal birth weight; the odds ratio for a 1-standard-deviation increase in proportion of optimal birth weight was 1.18 (95% confidence interval: 1.04, 1.35) after adjustment for the matching variables and potential confounders. This association was also present among children who did not have a high birth weight, suggesting that accelerated growth, rather than high birth weight per se, is associated with risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Similar associations between proportion of optimal birth weight and acute lymphoblastic leukemia were observed for both sexes and across age groups and leukemia subtypes. Results of this study confirm earlier findings of a positive association between rapidity of fetal growth and subsequent risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in childhood, and they are consistent with a role for insulin-like growth factors in the causal pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sublethal effects of infectious disease on reproductive behaviour and mating success are not well understood. Here, we investigated predictors of male mating success in one of Australia's most critically endangered vertebrates: the northern corroboree frog, Pseudophryne pengilleyi. Using a genomic approach to assign parentage, we explored whether infection with the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a pathogen responsible for amphibian declines globally, influenced male calling behaviour and mating success. We also explored whether male mating success was predicted by phenotypic traits (age, body size, coloration, call characters) that potentially signal genetic quality, and the soil moisture (water potential) of male-constructed terrestrial nests, which may directly impact offspring survival. We found that Bd significantly influenced male advertisement; Bd -infected males produced calls with significantly higher pulse repetition rates than uninfected males. Older males had a higher probability of mating; however, variation in the number of eggs in a nest was most strongly explained by an interaction between male Bd infection status and call pulse repetition rate. We propose that these relationships may result from either pathogen-mediated changes to host behaviour or host-mediated changes to behaviour (e.g. terminal investment). Regardless of the mechanism, this is the first evidence that male mating success in an amphibian can be influenced by male Bd infection status, highlighting a novel mechanism through which this virulent pathogen can affect amphibian fitness. More broadly, these findings add to a growing body of evidence that pathogens can alter the reproductive biology of their hosts. From a conservation perspective, increased consideration of how sexual selection operates in altered environments has the potential to assist with the management of threatened amphibians worldwide. • We studied the effect of chytrid infection on male mating success in corroboree frogs. • Chytrid infection influenced male calling and the number of eggs in a male's nest. • Male age also influenced mating success. • We show for the first time that disease can alter amphibian mating outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • We used single nucleotide polymorphisms mitochondrial sequences, and morphological data to infer the evolutionary history of ridge-tailed monitor lizards. • We identified nine populations which we propose belong to four species. • The geographic distribution of the populations and admixture patterns reflect the aridification of Australia and highlight the importance of rocky escarpments as mesic refugia. • We identified and described a new species from a region that has been recognized as a historical refugium in northern Australia. Genomic data are a powerful tool for the elucidation of evolutionary patterns at the population level and above. The combined analysis of genomic and morphological data can result in species delimitation hypotheses that reflect evolutionary history better than traditional taxonomy or any individual source of evidence. Here, we used thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms, mitochondrial sequences, and comprehensive morphological data to characterize the evolutionary history of the ridge-tailed monitors in the Varanus acanthurus complex (V. acanthurus , V. baritji , and V. storri), a group of saxicolous lizards with a wide distribution in Australia, the driest vegetated continent. We found substantial genetic structure in the group and identify nine geographically clustered populations. Based on admixture patterns and species delimitation analyses we propose a taxonomic scheme that differs from current taxonomy. We consider V. acanthurus as monotypic, synonymize V. baritji with V. a. insulanicus (as a redefined V. insulanicus), elevate the subspecies of V. storri to full species (V. storri and V. ocreatus), and describe a new species from a previously identified center of endemism. The relationships among the species remain unresolved, likely as a result of fast speciation. Our study highlights the capability of large datasets to illuminate admixture patterns, biogeographic history, and species limits, even when phylogeny is not completely resolved. Furthermore, our results highlight the impact that the Cenozoic aridification of Australia had on saxicolous taxa and the role of mesic rocky escarpments as refugia. These habitats apparently allowed the persistence of lineages that became sources of colonization for arid environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Genetic data from five loci show genetic structure within A. muricatus. [•] Data from over 500 specimens shows little differentiation in body proportions. [•] Phylogenetic patterns are consistent with other taxa in the Australian Great Dividing Range. [•] Biogeographic barriers appear to correlate to lowlands between mountain ranges. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

[Display omitted] • We produce detailed phylogenetic analyses for a comprehensive sampling of the Antaresia genus of dwarfed pythons. • Population structure and species delimitation analyses show extensive admixture. • Historical demography analyses show the importance of biodiversity hotspots in the Pilbara, Kimberley and Cape York. • Our molecular results, combined with linear and geometric morphometric analyses highlight the importance of integrative approaches. • Our results lead us to lump the widespread species A. childreni and A. stimsoni, and to describe a new species of Antaresia for Torres Strait and New Guinea as well as two subspecies of A. maculosa in northeast Australia. Advances from empirical studies in phylogeography, systematics and species delimitation highlight the importance of integrative approaches for quantifying taxonomic diversity. Genomic data have greatly improved our ability to discern both systematic diversity and evolutionary history. Here we combine analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences, thousands of genome-wide SNPs and linear and geometric morphometrics on Antaresia, a clade of four currently recognised dwarf pythons from Australia and New Guinea (Antaresia childreni, A. stimsoni, A. maculosa and A. perthensis). Our integrative analyses of phylogenetics, population structure, species delimitation, historical demography and morphometrics revealed that the true evolutionary diversity is not well reflected in the current appraisal of the diversity of the group. We find that Antaresia childreni and A. stimsoni comprise a widespread network of populations connected by gene flow and without evidence of species-level divergence among them. However, A. maculosa shows considerable genetic structuring which leads us to recognise two subspecies in northeastern Australia and a new species in Torres Strait and New Guinea. These two contrasting cases of over and under estimation of diversity, respectively, illustrate the power of thorough integrative approaches into understanding evolution of biodiversity. Furthermore, our analyses of historical demographic patterns highlight the importance of the Kimberley, Pilbara and Cape York as origins of biodiversity in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Textbook outcome (TBO) has been proposed as a composite measure of quality in esophagogastric surgery, and achieving a TBO has been associated with improved overall survival (OS). The Dutch Upper Gastrointestinal Cancer Audit group determined their TBO rate for gastrectomy to be 32.1%, using 10 parameters. Our study aimed to assess the TBO rate in patients who had a gastrectomy for cancer in an Australian Upper GI unit, allowing for comparisons with international specialist centers., Methods: Retrospective analysis of a prospectively maintained database of patients who had a gastrectomy for cancer performed by the surgeons in a single Australian center between 2013 and 2018. Postoperative complications were analyzed using Clavien-Dindo (CD) ≥2 and CD ≥3 definitions. Baseline factors and their association with TBO were analyzed using multivariable logistical regression. The association between TBO and survival rates was determined by Cox proportional hazards regression analysis., Results: In 136 patients, 84 (62%) achieved a TBO when complications were graded as CD ≥2. Greatest negative impact on TBO was the complication rate, lymph node yield, and length of stay. Patients more likely to achieve a TBO were younger, with an increased body mass index and absence of underlying respiratory disease. A nonsignificant trend toward improved OS was seen when TBO was achieved., Conclusion: Our TBO rate compares favorably with published data from high-volume centers. Assessment of a unit's TBO may provide a stronger evaluation of quality when assessing where complex surgery should be performed within Australia., (Copyright © 2024 Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract. All rights reserved.)

Background: Preliminary evidence suggests that evening chronotype is related to poorer efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. It is unknown whether this is specific to particular medications, self-rated chronotype, or efficacy., Methods: In the Australian Genetics of Depression Study (n = 15,108; 75% women; 18-90 years; 68% with ≥1 other lifetime diagnosis), a survey recorded experiences with 10 antidepressants, and the reduced Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire was used to estimate chronotype. A chronotype polygenic score was calculated. Age- and sex-adjusted regression models (Bonferroni-corrected) estimated associations among antidepressant variables (how well the antidepressant worked [efficacy], duration of symptom improvement, side effects, discontinuation due to side effects) and self-rated and genetic chronotypes., Results: The chronotype polygenic score explained 4% of the variance in self-rated chronotype (r = 0.21). Higher self-rated eveningness was associated with poorer efficacy of escitalopram (odds ratio [OR] = 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.06; p = .000035), citalopram (OR = 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.05; p = .004), fluoxetine (OR = 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.05; p = .001), sertraline (OR = 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.04; p = .0008), and desvenlafaxine (OR = 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.05; p = .004), and a profile of increased side effects (80% of those recorded; ORs = 0.93-0.98), with difficulty getting to sleep the most common. Self-rated chronotype was unrelated to duration of improvement or discontinuation. The chronotype polygenic score was only associated with suicidal thoughts and attempted suicide (self-reported). While our measures are imperfect, and not of circadian phase under controlled conditions, the model coefficients suggest that dysregulation of the phenotypic chronotype relative to its genetic proxy drove relationships with antidepressant outcomes., Conclusions: The idea that variation in circadian factors influences response to antidepressants was supported and encourages exploration of circadian mechanisms of depressive disorders and antidepressant treatments., (Copyright © 2024 Society of Biological Psychiatry. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The Australian continent's size and isolation make it an ideal place for studying the accumulation and evolution of biodiversity. Long separated from the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, most of Australia's plants and animals are unique and endemic, including the continent's frogs. Australian frogs comprise a remarkable ecological and morphological diversity categorized into a small number of distantly related radiations. We present a phylogenomic hypothesis based on an exon-capture dataset that spans the main clades of Australian myobatrachoid, pelodryadid hyloid, and microhylid frogs. Our time-calibrated phylogenomic-scale phylogeny identifies great disparity in the relative ages of these groups that vary from Gondwanan relics to recent immigrants from Asia and include arguably the continent's oldest living vertebrate radiation. This age stratification provides insight into the colonization of, and diversification on, the Australian continent through deep time, during periods of dramatic climatic and community changes. Contemporary Australian frog diversity highlights the adaptive capacity of anurans, particularly in response to heat and aridity, and explains why they are one of the continent's most visible faunas. [Anuran; adaptive radiation; Gondwana; phylogenetics]., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press, on behalf of the Society of Systematic Biologists. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: Breastfeeding has a number of benefits for both mothers and their infants. Research has examined the psychosocial influences on breastfeeding, yielding important findings in relation to particular constructs that play a significant role in this vital health behaviour. One such construct is subjective norms. However, there are mixed findings in relation to the role of subjective norms in breastfeeding behaviours. This may be due to the lack of consistent measure of subjective norms across studies. Further, the influence of fathers' subjective norms on breastfeeding continuation remains unclear due to a lack of measurement. Thus, the aim of the current study was to develop and assess a reliable and valid subjective norms scale specific to breastfeeding for use among both mothers and fathers., Design/methods: Subjective norms items were developed by researchers in the domain and were tested among 949 couples., Results: Findings indicated that both subjective norms scales had excellent reliability, construct validity, and predictive validity. It was also found that both the mothers' and fathers' subjective norms scales tapped into two key structures: breastfeeding in general, and breastfeeding in public. Further, maternal subjective norms were predictive of breastfeeding behaviours but not paternal subjective norms., Conclusions: These findings indicate that the developed subjective norms scales are reliable and valid and capture key elements of breastfeeding subjective norms among both mothers and fathers. Use of this measure in future research can help better understand the role of both mothers' and fathers' subjective norms in influencing breastfeeding behaviours., (© 2023 The Authors. British Journal of Health Psychology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Psychological Society.)

Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

The purpose of this systematic literature review (SLR) was to methodically integrate peer-reviewed findings regarding lateral violence within Indigenous communities, with particular attention to the experiences of Indigenous women. Lateral violence describes aggression within systemically exploited groups. Interpretations from eligible articles were informed by intersectionality theory and post-colonial theory. Eligibility criteria included quantitative and qualitative peer-reviewed articles on lateral violence within Indigenous communities. Only articles that were primary sources, available to download in English, and published between 2000 and 2021 were included. Samples did not need to consist of Indigenous women exclusively, but Indigenous women had to be included. First, advanced searches were conducted in five databases (Academic Search Complete, PsycINFO, Indigenous Peoples: North America, ProQuest: Sociology Collection, and ERIC). Second, a multidisciplinary index (Google Scholar) was searched. Third, 23 peer-reviewed journals specializing in Indigenous topics were systematically searched. Lastly, forward and backward snowballing techniques were implemented. Articles were appraised following PRISMA-P guidelines. Ten articles passed the eligibility criteria. Findings suggest that lateral violence within Indigenous communities is a complex social concern, with participants disclosing both survivorship and contribution to lateral violence. Within Australian and Canadian contexts, lateral violence experiences are prevalent and persistent occurrences. Lateral violence is a controversial and taboo topic and is often silenced or normalized within Indigenous communities. For this reason, further research is warranted to raise awareness of lateral violence to disrupt the cycle of internalized oppression.

Clinical Relevance: Understanding the prevalence of vision conditions in a population is critical for determining the most appropriate strategies for detecting and correcting eye conditions in a community. This is particularly important in very remote regions where access to vision testing services is limited., Background: Although recent studies have provided detailed analyses of the prevalence of vision conditions in Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander children in urban and regional areas of Australia, there is a paucity of research examining vision conditions in children in remote regions. Importantly, a significant proportion of the population in remote and very remote regions identify as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people., Methods: Comprehensive eye examinations were provided to 193 primary school children in a very remote Australian region. Ninety eight percent of children identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. The eye examination included measures of visual acuity, cycloplegic autorefraction, binocular vision and accommodative function, ocular health and colour vision. Previous history of eye examinations and refractive correction were assessed through parental questionnaire., Results: Although the average unaided vision in the population was good (mean: 0.02 ± 0.13 logMAR) and the prevalence of reduced unaided visual acuity (>0.3 logMAR in either eye) was low (4%), vision conditions were detected in 32% of children. The most common conditions were clinically significant refractive errors (18% of children) and binocular vision or accommodative disorders (16%). Of the total population of children tested, 10% had previously had an eye examination, and 2% were reported to have previously been prescribed spectacles., Conclusions: In this population of children in a very remote Australian region, up to 1 in 3 children had a vision condition, with many of these conditions being uncorrected and undetected. These findings highlight the important need for additional resources to be made available to very remote communities for the detection and correction of vision conditions in childhood.

Lineages may diversify when they encounter available ecological niches. Adaptive divergence by ecological opportunity often appears to follow the invasion of a new environment with open ecological space. This evolutionary process is hypothesized to explain the explosive diversification of numerous Australian vertebrate groups following the collision of the Eurasian and Australian plates 25 Mya. One of these groups is the pythons, which demonstrate their greatest phenotypic and ecological diversity in Australo-Papua (Australia and New Guinea). Here, using an updated and near complete time-calibrated phylogenomic hypothesis of the group, we show that following invasion of this region, pythons experienced a sudden burst of speciation rates coupled with multiple instances of accelerated phenotypic evolution in head and body shape and body size. These results are consistent with adaptive radiation theory with an initial rapid niche-filling phase and later slow-down approaching niche saturation. We discuss these findings in the context of other Australo-Papuan adaptive radiations and the importance of incorporating adaptive diversification systems that are not extraordinarily species-rich but ecomorphologically diverse to understand how biodiversity is generated.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a challenging class of environmental pollutants due to a lack of available destructive remediation technologies. Understanding the fundamental mechanisms for degradation of PFAS is key for the development of field scalable and in-situ destructive based remediation technologies. This study aimed to elucidate and refine the current understanding of PFAS degradation mechanisms in water through a series of controlled gamma irradiation studies. Gamma irradiation of PFAS was performed using a cobalt-60 source in a batch irradiation up to 80 kGy at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS), and a suite of thirteen different PFAS (including C4-C12 PFCAs, C4, C6, C8 PFSAs, and FOSA) were irradiated to investigate degradation, influence of pH, chain length, and transformation. High resolution mass spectrometry was used to identify more than 80 fluorinated transformation products throughout the degradation experiments. These included the -F/+H, -F/+OH, -F/CH 2 OH exchanged PFAS and n - 1 PFCA, amongst others. Given the reactive species present (hydroxyl radicals (·OH), hydrogen radicals (·H) and aqueous electrons (e - aq )), and the degradation products formed it was shown that aqueous electrons were the key reactive species responsible for initial PFAS degradation. Most importantly, based on degradation product formation, we found that the initial -F/+H does not have to occur at the α-fluoride (nearest the functional head group), rather occurring throughout the chain length leading to more complex degradation pathways than previously postulated. While our results support some of the reaction steps postulated in the literature, we have developed a unified 16 step and 3 pathway schematic of degradation supported by experimental observations., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The habenula is a small structure in the brain that acts as a relay station for neural information, helping to modulate behaviour in response to variable and unpredictable stimuli. Broadly, it is evolutionarily conserved in structure and connectivity across vertebrates and is the most prominent bilaterally asymmetric structure in the brain. Nonetheless, comparative evolutionary studies of the habenula are virtually non-existent. Here, we examine the volumes of the medial and lateral habenular subregions, in both hemispheres, across a group of Australian agamid lizards in the genus Ctenophorus. In males, we found bilaterally asymmetrical selection on the lateral habenula to become smaller with increasing intensity of sexual selection, possibly as a mechanism to increase aggressive responses. In females, we found bilaterally symmetrical selection on both the medial and lateral subregions to become smaller with increasing sexual selection. This is consistent with sexual selection increasing motivation to reproduce and the habenula's well-characterized role in controlling and modifying responses to rewarding stimuli. However, as there are currently no studies addressing habenular function in reptiles, it is difficult to draw more precise conclusions. As has happened recently in biomedical neuroscience, it is time for the habenula to receive greater attention in evolutionary neuroscience., (© 2022 The Author(s). Published by S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Global biodiversity loss is a profound consequence of human activity. Disturbingly, biodiversity loss is greater than realized because of the unknown number of undocumented species. Conservation fundamentally relies on taxonomic recognition of species, but only a fraction of biodiversity is described. Here, we provide a new quantitative approach for prioritizing rigorous taxonomic research for conservation. We implement this approach in a highly diverse vertebrate group-Australian lizards and snakes. Of 870 species assessed, we identified 282 (32.4%) with taxonomic uncertainty, of which 17.6% likely comprise undescribed species of conservation concern. We identify 24 species in need of immediate taxonomic attention to facilitate conservation. Using a broadly applicable return-on-investment framework, we demonstrate the importance of prioritizing the fundamental work of identifying species before they are lost., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction: Child maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect and exposure to domestic violence) is widely understood to be associated with multiple mental health disorders, physical health problems and health risk behaviours throughout life. However, Australia lacks fundamental evidence about the prevalence and characteristics of child maltreatment, its associations with mental disorders and physical health, and the associated burden of disease. These evidence gaps impede the development of public health strategies to better prevent and respond to child maltreatment. The aims of this research are to generate the first comprehensive population-based national data on the prevalence of child maltreatment in Australia, identify associations with mental disorders and physical health conditions and other adverse consequences, estimate attributable burden of disease and indicate targeted areas for future optimal public health prevention strategies., Methods and Analysis: The Australian Child Maltreatment Study (ACMS) is a nationwide, cross-sectional study of Australia's population aged 16 years and over. A survey of approximately 10 000 Australians will capture retrospective self-reported data on the experience in childhood of all five types of maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect and exposure to domestic violence). A customised, multimodule survey instrument has been designed to obtain information including: the prevalence and characteristics of these experiences; diagnostic screening of common mental health disorders; physical health; health risk behaviours and health service utilisation. The survey will be administered in March-November 2021 to a random sample of the nationwide population, recruited through mobile phone numbers. Participants will be surveyed using computer-assisted telephone interviews, conducted by trained interviewers from the Social Research Centre, an agency with extensive experience in studies of health and adversity. Rigorous protocols protect the safety of both participants and interviewers, and comply with all ethical and legal requirements. Analysis will include descriptive statistics reporting the prevalence of individual and multitype child maltreatment, multiple logistic and linear regression analyses to determine associations with mental disorders and physical health problems. We will calculate the population attributable fractions of these putative outcomes to enable an estimation of the disease burden attributable to child maltreatment., Ethics and Dissemination: The study has been approved by the Queensland University of Technology Human Research Ethics Committee (#1900000477, 16 August 2019). Results will be published to the scientific community in peer-reviewed journals, scientific meetings and through targeted networks. Findings and recommendations will be shared with government policymakers and community and organisational stakeholders through diverse engagement activities, a dedicated Advisory Board and a systematic knowledge translation strategy. Results will be communicated to the public through an organised media strategy and the ACMS website., Competing Interests: Competing interests: FM reports grants from the European Research Council, UKRI Global Challenges Research Fund, and the Economic and Social Research Council, during the conduct of the study; and personal fees from the German Ministry for Family, Youth and Senior Citizens, and University of Glasgow, outside the submitted work. All other authors declare no competing interests., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Organismal interactions drive the accumulation of diversity by influencing species ranges, morphology, and behavior. Interactions vary from agonistic to cooperative and should result in predictable patterns in trait and range evolution. However, despite a conceptual understanding of these processes, they have been difficult to model, particularly on macroevolutionary timescales and across broad geographic spaces. Here, we investigate the influence of biotic interactions on trait evolution and community assembly in monitor lizards (Varanus). Monitors are an iconic radiation with a cosmopolitan distribution and the greatest size disparity of any living terrestrial vertebrate genus. Between the colossal Komodo dragon Varanus komodoensis and the smallest Australian dwarf goannas, Varanus length and mass vary by multiple orders of magnitude. To test the hypothesis that size variation in this genus was driven by character displacement, we extended existing phylogenetic comparative methods which consider lineage interactions to account for dynamic biogeographic history and apply these methods to Australian monitors and marsupial predators. Incorporating both exon-capture molecular and morphological data sets we use a combined evidence approach to estimate the relationships among living and extinct varaniform lizards. Our results suggest that communities of Australian Varanus show high functional diversity as a result of continent-wide interspecific competition among monitors but not with faunivorous marsupials. We demonstrate that patterns of trait evolution resulting from character displacement on continental scales are recoverable from comparative data and highlight that these macroevolutionary patterns may develop in parallel across widely distributed sympatric groups.[Character displacement; comparative methods; phylogenetics; trait evolution; Varanus.]., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press, on behalf of the Society of Systematic Biologists. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Mental disorders and their functional impacts evolve dynamically over time. Neurocognition and clinical symptoms are commonly modelled as predictors of functioning, however, studies tend to rely on static variables and adult samples with chronic disorders, with limited research investigating change in these variables in young people with emerging mental disorders. These relationships were explored in a longitudinal clinical cohort of young people accessing early intervention mental health services in Australia, around three-quarters of whom presented with a mood disorder (N = 176, aged 12-30 at baseline). Bivariate latent change score models quantified associations between neurocognition (a latent variable of working memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, and cognitive flexibility), global clinical symptoms, and functioning (self- and clinician-rated) and their relative change over follow-up (median = 20 months). We found that longitudinal changes in functioning were coupled with changes in global clinical symptoms (β = -0.43, P < 0.001), such that improvement in functioning was related to improvement in clinical symptoms. Changes in neurocognition were not significantly associated with changes in functioning or clinical symptoms. Main findings were upheld in three sensitivity analyses restricting the sample to: (a) adults aged 18-30; (b) participants with 12-24 months of follow-up; and (c) participants without a psychotic disorder. Our findings show that global symptom reduction and functional improvement are related in young people with emerging mental disorders. More work is needed to determine the temporal precedence of change in these variables. Future studies should apply this methodology to intervention studies to untangle the causal dynamics between neurocognition, symptoms, and functioning., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Recipe use impacts eating habits, yet there is limited research investigating the nutritional quality of recipes. Supermarket recipe magazines command large readerships, with over 4 million readers for each of the two major Australian supermarket publications. Assessing the nutrient content of featured recipes is therefore of public health interest. The nutrient content of 312 main-meal recipes from Coles ® Magazine and Woolworths Fresh ® were analyzed and compared against a traffic-light system for classifying nutrients of concern in chronic disease. Nutrient content was compared across recipe type (standard, advertorial and celebrity) and between recipes with and without health or nutrient claims. Overall compliance with the traffic-light criteria was low, with less than half of recipes meeting the target. Advertorial recipes had a higher energy ( p = 0.001), saturated fat ( p = 0.045) and sodium ( p ≤ 0.001) content per serve, and per 100 g for sodium ( p ≤ 0.001) compared to standard and celebrity recipes. Recipes with claims had greater compliance to the nutrient criteria ( p < 0.001) compared to those without. These findings support previous research highlighting the poor nutritional quality of published recipes from a variety of sources., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Polyploidy has played an important role in evolution across the tree of life but it is still unclear how polyploid lineages may persist after their initial formation. While both common and well-studied in plants, polyploidy is rare in animals and generally less understood. The Australian burrowing frog genus Neobatrachus is comprised of six diploid and three polyploid species and offers a powerful animal polyploid model system. We generated exome-capture sequence data from 87 individuals representing all nine species of Neobatrachus to investigate species-level relationships, the origin and inheritance mode of polyploid species, and the population genomic effects of polyploidy on genus-wide demography. We describe rapid speciation of diploid Neobatrachus species and show that the three independently originated polyploid species have tetrasomic or mixed inheritance. We document higher genetic diversity in tetraploids, resulting from widespread gene flow between the tetraploids, asymmetric inter-ploidy gene flow directed from sympatric diploids to tetraploids, and isolation of diploid species from each other. We also constructed models of ecologically suitable areas for each species to investigate the impact of climate on differing ploidy levels. These models suggest substantial change in suitable areas compared to past climate, which correspond to population genomic estimates of demographic histories. We propose that Neobatrachus diploids may be suffering the early genomic impacts of climate-induced habitat loss, while tetraploids appear to be avoiding this fate, possibly due to widespread gene flow. Finally, we demonstrate that Neobatrachus is an attractive model to study the effects of ploidy on the evolution of adaptation in animals., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Downy mildew of opium poppy is the single biggest disease constraint afflicting the Australian poppy industry. Within the pathosystem, the transmission of infections via infested seed is of major concern. Both downy mildew pathogens of poppy; Peronospora meconopsidis and P. somniferi, are known contaminants of commercial seed stocks. Using seed naturally infested with these pathogens, the effect of physio-chemical seed treatments on seedling health and disease transmission were evaluated. Individual seed treatments were tested to determine optimal treatment parameters for each; including incubation time, temperature and treatment concentration. Optimised physiochemical treatments were then compared. The most effective treatment methods were seed washes in acidified electrolytic water (400 ppm hypochlorous acid for 5 min) and hypochlorite solution (2% NaOCI for 5 min). In seed to seedling transmission assays, these two treatments reduced transmission of P. somniferi by 88.8% and 74.61%, and P. meconopsidis by 93.3% and 100%, respectively. These methods are recommended for seed treatment of commercial opium poppy seed to assist in the control of the downy mildew diseases., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

An epizootic of coccidiosis in free-ranging green turtles ( Chelonia mydas ) occurred in Australia in 1991 and the parasites were thought to be Caryospora cheloniae . Recurring outbreaks over an increased geographic range followed. We used medical records and temporal and spatial data of turtles diagnosed with coccidiosis between 1991 and 2014 to characterize the disease and factors associated with outbreaks. Most affected animals were subadults or older. Neurologic signs with intralesional cerebral coccidia were observed. Coccidia associated with inflammation and necrosis were predominantly found in the intestine, brain, kidney, and thyroid. Cases occurred in the spring and summer. Three major outbreaks (1991, 2002, and 2014) were concentrated in Port Stephens, New South Wales (NSW) and Moreton Bay, Queensland, but cases occurred as far south as Sydney, NSW. Coccidiosis cases were more likely during, or 1 mo prior to, El Niño-like events. Molecular characterization of the 18S rRNA locus of coccidia from tissues of 10 green turtles collected in 2002 and 2004 in Port Stevens and Sydney imply that they were Schellackia -like organisms. Two genotypes were identified. The Genotype 3 sequence was most common (in eight of 10 turtles), with 98.8% similarity to the 18S sequence of Schellackia orientalis . The Genotype 4 sequence was less common (in two of 10 turtles) with 99.7% similarity to the 18S sequence of the most common genotype (Genotype 1) detected in turtles from the 2014 Moreton Bay outbreak. Our study will help with the identification and management of future outbreaks and provide tools for identification of additional disease patterns in green turtles.

Molecular data sets and the increasing use of integrative systematics is revealing cryptic diversity in a range of taxa - particularly in remote and poorly sampled landscapes like the island of New Guinea. Green pythons (Morelia viridis complex) are one of the most conspicuous elements of this island's fauna, with large numbers taken from the wild to supply international demand for exotic pets. We test hypotheses about species boundaries in green pythons from across New Guinea and Australia with mitochondrial genomes, 389 nuclear exons, and comprehensive assessment of morphological variation. Strong genetic structuring of green python populations and species delimitation methods confirm the presence of two species, broadly occurring north and south of New Guinea's central mountains. Our data also support three subspecies within the northern species. Subtle but consistent morphological divergence among the putative taxa is concordant with patterns of molecular divergence. Our extensive sampling identifies several zones of hitherto unknown biogeographical significance on the island of New Guinea. We revise the taxonomy of the group, discuss the relevance of our findings in the context of Papuan biogeography and the implications of our systematic changes for the conservation management of these taxa., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Mood and psychotic syndromes most often emerge during adolescence and young adulthood, a period characterised by major physical and social change. Consequently, the effects of adolescent-onset mood and psychotic syndromes can have long term consequences. A key clinical challenge for youth mental health is to develop and test new systems that align with current evidence for comorbid presentations and underlying neurobiology, and are useful for predicting outcomes and guiding decisions regarding the provision of appropriate and effective care. Our highly personalised and measurement-based care model includes three core concepts: ▶ A multidimensional assessment and outcomes framework that includes: social and occupational function; self-harm, suicidal thoughts and behaviour; alcohol or other substance misuse; physical health; and illness trajectory. ▶ Clinical stage. ▶ Three common illness subtypes (psychosis, anxious depression, bipolar spectrum) based on proposed pathophysiological mechanisms (neurodevelopmental, hyperarousal, circadian). The model explicitly aims to prevent progression to more complex and severe forms of illness and is better aligned to contemporary models of the patterns of emergence of psychopathology. Inherent within this highly personalised approach is the incorporation of other evidence-based processes, including real-time measurement-based care as well as utilisation of multidisciplinary teams of health professionals. Data-driven local system modelling and personalised health information technologies provide crucial infrastructure support to these processes for better access to, and higher quality, mental health care for young people. CHAPTER 1: MULTIDIMENSIONAL OUTCOMES IN YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH CARE: WHAT MATTERS AND WHY?: Mood and psychotic syndromes present one of the most serious public health challenges that we face in the 21st century. Factors including prevalence, age of onset, and chronicity contribute to substantial burden and secondary risks such as alcohol or other substance misuse. Mood and psychotic syndromes most often emerge during adolescence and young adulthood, a period characterised by major physical and social change; thus, effects can have long term consequences. We propose five key domains which make up a multidimensional outcomes framework that aims to address the specific needs of young people presenting to health services with emerging mental illness. These include social and occupational function; self-harm, suicidal thoughts and behaviours; alcohol or other substance misuse; physical health; and illness type, stage and trajectory. Impairment and concurrent morbidity are well established in young people by the time they present for mental health care. Despite this, services and health professionals tend to focus on only one aspect of the presentation - illness type, stage and trajectory - and are often at odds with the preferences of young people and their families. There is a need to address the disconnect between mental health, physical health and social services and interventions, to ensure that youth mental health care focuses on the outcomes that matter to young people. CHAPTER 2: COMBINING CLINICAL STAGE AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS TO UNDERSTAND ILLNESS TRAJECTORIES IN YOUNG PEOPLE WITH EMERGING MOOD AND PSYCHOTIC SYNDROMES: Traditional diagnostic classification systems for mental disorders map poorly onto the early stages of illness experienced by young people, and purport categorical distinctions that are not readily supported by research into genetic, environmental and neurobiological risk factors. Consequently, a key clinical challenge in youth mental health is to develop and test new classification systems that align with current evidence on comorbid presentations, are consistent with current understanding of underlying neurobiology, and provide utility for predicting outcomes and guiding decisions regarding the provision of appropriate and effective care. This chapter outlines a transdiagnostic framework for classifying common adolescent-onset mood and psychotic syndromes, combining two independent but complementary dimensions: clinical staging, and three proposed pathophysiological mechanisms. Clinical staging reflects the progression of mental disorders and is in line with the concept used in general medicine, where more advanced stages are associated with a poorer prognosis and a need for more intensive interventions with a higher risk-to-benefit ratio. The three proposed pathophysiological mechanisms are neurodevelopmental abnormalities, hyperarousal and circadian dysfunction, which, over time, have illness trajectories (or pathways) to psychosis, anxious depression and bipolar spectrum disorders, respectively. The transdiagnostic framework has been evaluated in young people presenting to youth mental health clinics of the University of Sydney's Brain and Mind Centre, alongside a range of clinical and objective measures. Our research to date provides support for this framework, and we are now exploring its application to the development of more personalised models of care. CHAPTER 3: A COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK FOR YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH: GUIDING HIGHLY PERSONALISED AND MEASUREMENT-BASED CARE USING MULTIDIMENSIONAL AND OBJECTIVE MEASURES: There is an urgent need for improved care for young people with mental health problems, in particular those with subthreshold mental disorders that are not sufficiently severe to meet traditional diagnostic criteria. New comprehensive assessment frameworks are needed to capture the biopsychosocial profile of a young person to drive highly personalised and measurement-based mental health care. We present a range of multidimensional measures involving five key domains: social and occupational function; self-harm, suicidal thoughts and behaviours; alcohol or other substance misuse; physical health; and illness type, stage and trajectory. Objective measures include: neuropsychological function; sleep-wake behaviours and circadian rhythms; metabolic and immune markers; and brain structure and function. The recommended multidimensional measures facilitate the development of a comprehensive clinical picture. The objective measures help to further develop informative and novel insights into underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and illness trajectories to guide personalised care plans. A panel of specific multidimensional and objective measures are recommended as standard clinical practice, while others are recommended secondarily to provide deeper insights with the aim of revealing alternative clinical paths for targeted interventions and treatments matched to the clinical stage and proposed pathophysiological mechanisms of the young person. CHAPTER 4: PERSONALISING CARE OPTIONS IN YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH: USING MULTIDIMENSIONAL ASSESSMENT, CLINICAL STAGE, PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS, AND INDIVIDUAL ILLNESS TRAJECTORIES TO GUIDE TREATMENT SELECTION: New models of mental health care for young people require that interventions be matched to illness type, clinical stage, underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and individual illness trajectories. Narrow syndrome-focused classifications often direct clinical attention away from other key factors such as functional impairment, self-harm and suicidality, alcohol or other substance misuse, and poor physical health. By contrast, we outline a treatment selection guide for early intervention for adolescent-onset mood and psychotic syndromes (ie, active treatments and indicated and more specific secondary prevention strategies). This guide is based on experiences with the Brain and Mind Centre's highly personalised and measurement-based care model to manage youth mental health. The model incorporates three complementary core concepts: ▶A multidimensional assessment and outcomes framework including: social and occupational function; self-harm, suicidal thoughts and behaviours; alcohol or other substance misuse; physical health; and illness trajectory. ▶Clinical stage. ▶Three common illness subtypes (psychosis, anxious depression, bipolar spectrum) based on three underlying pathophysiological mechanisms (neurodevelopmental, hyperarousal, circadian). These core concepts are not mutually exclusive and together may facilitate improved outcomes through a clinical stage-appropriate and transdiagnostic framework that helps guide decisions regarding the provision of appropriate and effective care options. Given its emphasis on adolescent-onset mood and psychotic syndromes, the Brain and Mind Centre's model of care also respects a fundamental developmental perspective - categorising childhood problems (eg, anxiety and neurodevelopmental difficulties) as risk factors and respecting the fact that young people are in a period of major biological and social transition. Based on these factors, a range of social, psychological and pharmacological interventions are recommended, with an emphasis on balancing the personal benefit-to-cost ratio. CHAPTER 5: A SERVICE DELIVERY MODEL TO SUPPORT HIGHLY PERSONALISED AND MEASUREMENT-BASED CARE IN YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH: Over the past decade, we have seen a growing focus on creating mental health service delivery models that better meet the unique needs of young Australians. Recent policy directives from the Australian Government recommend the adoption of stepped-care services to improve the appropriateness of care, determined by severity of need. Here, we propose that a highly personalised approach enhances stepped-care models by incorporating clinical staging and a young person's current and multidimensional needs. It explicitly aims to prevent progression to more complex and severe forms of illness and is better aligned to contemporary models of the patterns of emergence of psychopathology. Inherent within a highly personalised approach is the incorporation of other evidence-based processes, including real-time measurement-based care and use of multidisciplinary teams of health professionals. Data-driven local system modelling and personalised health information technologies provide crucial infrastructure support to these processes for better access to, and higher quality of, mental health care for young people., (© 2019 AMPCo Pty Ltd.)

Objective Continuing education (CE) is essential for a healthcare workforce, but in regional areas of Australia there are challenges to providing and accessing relevant, reliable and low-cost opportunities. The aim of the present study was to collaborate with the local regional healthcare workforce to design, deliver and evaluate an interdisciplinary CE (ICE) program. Methods A participatory action research (PAR) model combined with an appreciative inquiry (AI) framework was used to design, deliver and evaluate an ICE program. A focus group of 11 health professionals developed an initial program. Evaluation data from 410 program participants were analysed using AI. Results The ICE program addressed the CE barriers for the regional healthcare workforce because the locally derived content was delivered at a reasonable cost and in a convenient location. Program participants identified that they most valued shared experiences and opportunities enabling them to acquire and confirm relevant knowledge. Conclusion ICE programs enhance interdisciplinary collaboration. However, attendance constraints for regional healthcare workforce include location, cost, workplace and personal factors. Through community engagement, resource sharing and cooperation, a local university and the interdisciplinary focus group members successfully designed and delivered the local education and research nexus program to address a CE problem for a regional healthcare workforce. What is known about the topic? Participation in CE is mandatory for most health professionals. However, various barriers exist for regional health workers to attending CE. Innovative programs, such as webinars and travelling workshops, address some of the issues but create others. Bringing various health workers together for the simultaneous education of multiple disciplines is beneficial. Collectively, this is called ICE. What does this paper add? Using PAR combined with AI to design an ICE program will focus attention on the enablers of the program and meet the diverse educational needs of the healthcare workforce in regional areas. Engaging regional health professionals with a local university to design and deliver CE is one way to increase access to quality, cost-effective education. What are the implications for practitioners? Regional healthcare workers' CE needs are more likely to be met when education programs are designed by them and developed for them. ICE raises awareness of the roles of multiple healthcare disciplines. Learning together strengthens healthcare networks by bolstering relationships through a greater understanding of each other's roles. Enriching communication between local health workers has the potential to enhance patient care.

Background: CADENCE-BZ is a multi-centre, parallel-group, double-blind randomized controlled trial designed to examine the clinical efficacy and safety of an accessible food preservative, sodium benzoate, as an add-on treatment for patients with early psychosis. The original study protocol was published in 2017. Here, we describe the updated protocol along with the Statistical Analysis Plan (SAP) for the CADENCE-BZ trial prior to study completion., Methods and Materials: Two important changes were made to the original protocol: (1) improvements to our statistical analysis plan permitted a reduction in sample size; and (2) a revision in the secondary outcomes with the intent of reducing redundancy and excluding those measures that were not appropriate as outcomes., Conclusions: We provide the updated SAP prior to the completion of the study with the intent of increasing the transparency of the data analyses for CADENCE-BZ. The final participants are currently completing the study and the results will be published in the near future., Trial Registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ( ACTRN12615000187549 ). Registered on 26th February 2015.

The consumption of free sugars is directly associated with adiposity and dental caries in early childhood; however, intake data in the first 2 years of life are limited. This cross-sectional analysis aims to identify major food sources of free sugars for Australian children aged 12-14 months and investigate factors associated with meeting the World Health Organisation (WHO) Guideline for sugars intake. Three days of nonconsecutive dietary data were collected via a 24-hr recall and 2-day food record for 828 participants. Usual intake of energy, total sugars, and free sugars were estimated, along with food group contributions to free sugars. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to investigate factors associated with exceeding the WHO conservative recommendation that <5% of energy should come from free sugars. Mean free sugars intake was 8.8 (SD 7.7, IQR 3.7-11.6) g/day, contributing 3.6% (SD 2.8, IQR 1.6-4.8) of energy. Only 2.4% of participants exceeded the WHO recommendation that <10% of energy should come from free sugars, with 22.8% of participants exceeding the <5% recommendation. Children from households with greater socio-economic disadvantage (IRSAD <5, OR = 1.94) and in the lowest income bracket (OR = 2.10) were more likely to have intakes ≥5% of energy. Major food sources of free sugars were commercial infant foods (26.6%), cereal-based products (19.7%), namely, sweet biscuits (8.3%) and cakes (7.6%), followed by yoghurt (9.6%), and fruit and vegetable beverages (7.4%). These findings highlight the substantial contribution of infant foods to free sugars intakes and provide further evidence that dietary intakes are influenced by social determinants., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

There is limited evidence to describe Australian mothers' understanding of the Australian Infant Feeding Guidelines (AIFG). A qualitative inductive methodological approach was used in this study to explore experiences with the introduction of solid food. Seven focus groups with 42 mothers of children aged 4⁻18 months were conducted in disadvantaged areas in Perth, Australia. The mean age of infants was 9.6 months and mean age of introduction of solid food was 4.3 months (range 1.2 to 7.5 months). Almost half of the mothers in this study were aware of the AIFG however, only half again could correctly identify the recommended age for introducing solid food. Four themes and nine subthemes emerged from the analysis. Themes were (1) Every child is different (judging signs of readiness); (2) Everyone gives you advice (juggling conflicting advice); (3) Go with your gut -(being a "good" mother); and (4) It's not a sin to start them too early or too late (-guidelines are advice and not requirements). The findings indicated that in spite of continued promotion of the AIFG over the past ten years achieving the around six months guideline is challenging. Professionals must address barriers and support enablers to achieving infant feeding recommendations in the design education materials and programs., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.