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Although self-report questionnaires are widely used, researchers debate whether responses to these types of questionnaires are valid representations of the respondent's actual thoughts and beliefs. In order to provide more insight into the quality of questionnaire data, we aimed to gain an understanding of the processes that impact the completion of self-report questionnaires. To this end, we explored the process of completing a questionnaire by monitoring the eye tracking data of 70 students in higher education. Specifically, we examined the relation between eye movement measurements and the level of internal consistency demonstrated in the responses to the questionnaire. The results indicated that respondents who look longer at an item do not necessarily have more consistent answering behaviour than respondents with shorter processing times. Our findings indicate that eye tracking serves as a promising tool to gain more insight into the process of completing self-report questionnaires.

Pupils' and students' learning in the workplace and dual education has drawn increased attention because it is, among others, relevant in combating youth unemployment, increasing individual employability, and organisations' ability to provide high quality services and products. However, research focusing on pupils' and students' readiness to participate in learning in the workplace is scarce and scattered. The present study was conducted to get a deeper insight into readiness to participate in learning in the workplace, and more particular in the Flemish (Belgium) context of dual education. The study applied a multi-method approach including literature review, document study, semi-structured interviews and member checking. The study resulted in a conceptualisation of 'willingness to participate in learning in the workplace' and 'maturity for learning in the workplace' including clusters of competencies related to participation in the workplace, learning in the workplace, and motivation for learning and participating in the workplace. This conceptualisation contributes to the development of policy and practice through providing a basis for assessing readiness to participate in dual education.

This study starts from the observation that current empirical research on students' processing strategies in higher education has mainly focused on the use of self-report instruments to measure students' general preferences towards processing strategies. In contrast, there is a rather limited use of more direct and online observation techniques to uncover differences in processing strategies at a task specific level. We based our study on one of the most influential studies in the domain of Students' Approaches to Learning (SAL) (Marton, Dahlgren, Säljö, & Svensson, 1975). In our exploratory experiment we used eye tracking followed by a cued recall to investigate how students use processing strategies in learning from expository text. Nineteen university students participated in the experiment. Results suggested that students in the deep condition did not look longer at the essentials in the text compared with students in the surface condition, but that they processed them in a more deep way. In our sample, students in the surface condition looked longer at facts and details and also reported repeating these facts and details more often. We suggest that the combination of eye tracking followed by a cued recall is a promising tool to investigate students' processing strategies since not all differences in processing strategies are reflected in overt eye movement behaviour. The current methodology allows researchers in the domain of SAL to complement and extend the present knowledge base that has accumulated through years of research with self-report questionnaires and interviews on students' general preferences towards processing strategies.

The current study investigates the learning of student teachers in alternative programmes in which they combine a teaching job with an in-service teacher-training program at the university. The aim of this paper is to explore which work-related and training-programme related factors facilitate the learning of these teachers-in-training in the workplace. Starting from the framework of the Job-Demands-Control-Support model, a total of 11 teachers were interviewed. Results of the qualitative analyses indicated that high levels of job demands, autonomy and social support were important for in-service student teachers' learning in the workplace. Social support and guidance from colleagues in the workplace seemed more relevant for learning than the support and guidance from the supervisors from the teaching program at the university. Implications for practice and for further research are discussed.

Technology is more present than ever. Young people are interested in technological products, but their opinions on education and careers in technology are not particularly positive (Johansson in "Mathematics, Science & Technology Education Report." European Round Table of Industrials, Brussel, 2009). If we want to stimulate students' attitudes towards technology we need to have a better understanding of the factors which determine attitudes. Different studies (e.g. Volk and Yip in "Int J Technol Des Educ" 9:57-71, 1999; Jones et al. in "Sci Educ" 84(2):180-192, 2000; George in "Int J Sci Educ" 28(6):571-589, 2006; Salminen-Karlsson in "Int J Sci Educ" 29(8):1019-1033, 2007) have proven that students' characteristics correlate with their attitudes towards technology. As these studies often focus on effects on a specific aspect of attitude; the total effect cannot be interpreted correctly because attitude is a multi-dimensional concept (Osborne et al. in "Int J Sci Educ" 23(5):441-467, 2003). This study focuses upon six aspects of attitude namely: interest, career aspirations, boredom, consequences, difficulty and gender issues. Therefore a multivariate model has been set up. This allows us to answer the main research question: What is the predictive power of students' characteristics with regard to aspects of their attitudes towards technology? The revalidated version of the "Pupils Attitude Towards Technology" instrument (Ardies et al. in "Des Technol Educ" 18(1):8-19, 2013) was used in a large (n = 2,973) scale investigation of 12-14 year old students (Grade 1 and Grade 2 of secondary education). Given the multilevel nature of the data and that students are allocated to specific teachers, we analysed the data with a multivariate multilevel approach. The results of the study show a decline in interest in technology from the first to the second grade of secondary education. This finding appears to be stronger for girls. Interest in technology is significantly positively related to the amount of time that technology is taught for, as well as to the teacher. Parents have a positive influence on several aspects of attitude to technology when mothers and/or fathers have a profession related to technology. Equally, the presence of technological toys at home is a significantly positive characteristic. As the results confirmed previous, fragmented studies in related disciplines like science education, this study contributes to the wider body of knowledge concerning students' attitudes towards technology and how this can be investigated.

Background: More young people, boys and girls, are needed in technical studies and professions, as the relative number of students in technology-related studies has been decreasing in most industrialised countries. To overcome this decrease several countries implemented mandatory technology classes in the curriculum of secondary education. Purpose: This study has two goals: exploring the evolution of pupils' interest during the year(s) they attend the mandatory technology classes and exploring determining characteristics for differences in boys' and girls' attitude change over time. Sample: This study focuses on data gathered in the first and second grade of the first cycle in general secondary education in the North region of Belgium, Flanders. In a first stage we selected a good representation of geographically spread schools (n = 20), from which over 1300 students participated. Design and methods: A longitudinal study with eight measurement occasions spread over the course of two years is presented in order to capture the evolution of students' attitudes, making use of a multilevel growth model analysis. Results: The results show that students' interest in technology decreases over time, although at the end of each grade interest is increasing again. Boys' and girls' interest in technology also evolves a little different in the first cycle of secondary education. For career aspirations we didn't see any significant difference between boys and girls. Boys' and girls' aspirations decrease over time with a little increase by the end of the second grade. Students with a more technological curriculum also have more career aspirations in the field of technology than their peers with other curricula. Although students' perceptions about technology as a subject for boys and girls are largely stable. Conclusions: The evolution of students' attitude is far from linear, this strengthens us in the choice for a more complex analysis model and the choice for more measuring points than only at the beginning and the end when analysing students' attitudes towards technology. With this research we found that students interest and aspirations in the field of technology are not stable and do change in the first cycle of secondary education. Overall, we can conclude that if the goal of technology education at school maintains to promote "a larger number of students in technological oriented studies and professions", there is still much to do.

This article examines if and how characteristics of appraisal systems used for secondary school teachers affect job satisfaction. Using multilevel analyses on data of 3 473 teachers in Flanders (Belgium), we found that appraisals with a developmental purpose and appraisals perceived as being a fair judgement, both have a positive impact on job satisfaction. Also clarity of appraisals and appraisals perceived as a judgement of quality add to a specific view of job satisfaction. These findings provide significant implications for educational policy at diverse levels, aimed at designing and implementing more effective appraisal systems, which affect teachers in their careers.

Evidence regarding the impact of teachers' instructional development on student learning in higher education is scarce. In this study the authors investigate the impact of an instructional development programme for beginning university teachers on students' approach to studying. They also explore whether this impact is dependent on class size and student level (first years versus non-first years). Quantitative data were gathered from more than 1000 students at pre-tests and post-tests, using a quasi-experimental design. A multilevel analysis was then conducted in which five models were estimated. The results show limited effects of teachers' instructional development. Several interpretations and perspectives for research into instructional development are discussed. (Contains 8 tables.)

Evidence regarding the impact of teachers' instructional development on student learning in higher education is scarce. In this study, we investigate the impact of an instructional development program for beginning university teachers on students' learning outcomes. We also explore whether this impact is dependent on class size and student level. Quantitative data were gathered from more than 1000 students at pre- and post-tests, using a quasi-experimental design. A multi-level analysis was conducted in which five models were estimated. The results show limited effects of teachers' instructional development. Several interpretations and perspectives for further research are discussed. (Contains 8 tables and 1 note.)

Based on the Demand-Control-Support (DCS) model, the present paper aims to investigate the influence of job characteristics such as job demands, job control, social support at work and self-directed learning orientation on the work-related learning behaviour of workers. The present study was conducted in a centre for part-time vocational education in Flanders (Belgium). The students in the centre work for 3 days a week and attend school during the other two days. A questionnaire using scales adapted from validated instruments was used. Students were asked to complete the questionnaire with the job in mind they were doing at present. A total of 115 students from different sectors completed the questionnaire. It was assumed that high scores for self-directed learning orientation and high scores for the job characteristics job demands, job control and social support would be associated with more work-related learning behaviour. All scales had acceptable Cronbach alpha values. The results of the linear regression analyses indicated that only the self-directed learning orientation scale predicted the work-related learning behaviour to a significant extent.

The purpose of this paper is to gain more insight into the relationship between teachers' approaches to teaching on the one hand, and the characteristics of context and teacher demographics on the other. Data were collected from 50 teaching staff at the University of Antwerp and from three sources: a Dutch translation of the Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI), information given by the participants, and information obtained through the personnel department of the university. Only the conceptual change/student-focused scale of the ATI had good reliability and was used for further analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no relationship between teachers' approaches to teaching and the context variables of expert level of students, teaching discipline and the number of students in the classroom. Neither was a relationship found between the teachers' conceptual change/student-focused approach and the teacher characteristics of gender, academic status, teaching experience, age and intention to participate in teacher training. Several interpretations of these data and perspectives for further research are discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to gain insight into the relationships between hands-on experiences with formative assessment, students' assessment preferences and their approaches to learning. The sample consisted of 108 university first-year Bachelor's students studying criminology. Data were obtained using the "Revised two-factor study process questionnaire" (R-SPQ-2F) and the "Assessment preferences inventory" (API). The study shows that differences in assessment preferences are correlated with differences in approach to learning. Students' preferences for assessment methods with higher-order thinking tasks are significantly lower after actual experience with a formative assessment. Moreover, students also changed their approaches to learning after hands-on experience with a formative mode of assessment. Surprisingly, this change evinced a more "surface approach" to learning. Nevertheless, this is in line with other recent research findings. The paper ends with some possible explanations, and new directions for research are proposed. (Contains 4 tables.)