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• Gitga'at climate imaginaries are shaped by lived experiences and millenia-old relationship to ancestral territories. • Gitga'at people are actively planning and adapting to climate change by maintaining relationship to territory. • Gitga'at climate imaginaries and adaptation actions center Indigenous sovereignty and resurgence. • Hegemonic settler-colonial climate imaginaries create pressures and tension on a "turning to the territory" imaginary. This article investigates how the climate imaginaries of Gitga'at people (an Indigenous Nation on the northwest coast of what is now known as British Columbia, Canada) take shape on the lands and waters of their territory and whether these imaginaries differ from or actively resist hegemonic settler-colonial imaginaries of climate futures. We analyze community values-led climate adaptation planning documents and actions, and knowledge-holder interviews to answer our research questions. Our interpretation as collaborative non-Indigenous scholars is that lived experiences and millennia-old relationship between Gitga'at people and their ancestral territory play a strong role in informing a contemporary climate imaginary of "turning to the territory". This imaginary is evidenced in the ways the Gitga'at Nation is currently adapting to impacts of climate change in their territory. We juxtapose "turning to the territory" with common settler climate imaginaries and find that it moves beyond the paralyzing "climate apocalypse" imaginary, and in fact encompasses "techno-markets" and "sustainable lifestyles" themes within a frame of Indigenous self-determination and resurgence. However, it is at odds with the hegemonic "fossil fuels forever" imaginary enacted by settler-colonial governments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strategies to reduce, halt, and reverse global declines in marine biodiversity are needed urgently. We reviewed, coded, and synthesized historical and contemporary marine conservation strategies of the Kitasoo/Xai'xais First Nation in British Columbia, Canada to show how their approaches work. We assessed whether the conservation actions classification system by the Conservation Measures Partnership was able to encompass this nation's conservation approaches. All first‐order conservation actions aligned with the Kitasoo/Xai'xais First Nation's historical and contemporary marine conservation actions; hereditary chief management responsibility played a key role. A conservation ethic permeates Kitasoo/Xai'xais culture, and indigenous resource management and conservation existed historically and remains strong despite extreme efforts by colonizers to suppress all indigenous practices. The Kitasoo/Xai'xais's embodiment of conservation actions as part of their worldview, rather than as requiring actions separate from everyday life (the norm in nonindigenous cultures), was missing from the conservation action classification system. The Kitasoo/Xai'xais are one of many indigenous peoples working to revitalize their governance and management authorities. With the Canadian government's declared willingness to work toward reconciliation, there is an opportunity to enable First Nations to lead on marine and other conservation efforts. Global conservation efforts would also benefit from enhanced support for indigenous conservation approaches, including expanding the conservation actions classification to encompass a new category of conservation or sacredness ethic. Article impact statement: Indigenous marine conservation remains strong, despite colonial efforts to undermine indigenous governance, and should be supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The rise in global demand for seafood has led many people to view shellfish aquaculture as an economically and ecologically viable source of seafood. However, interactions with the environment, existing industry, and societal values must be considered to ensure sustainability of this industry. Shellfish aquaculture in British Columbia (BC), Canada, showcases many of these issues. This review explores key socio-economic and ecological considerations for future growth of shellfish aquaculture on the central and north coast of BC, with implications for the continuing global expansion of the industry. Interactions among shellfish aquaculture, coastal groups, existing industries, and First Nations, as well as considerations under changing oceanic conditions are investigated. Expansion of shellfish aquaculture on the central and north coast of BC will need to be socially, environmentally, and economically sustainable. The results of this review strongly indicate that shellfish aquaculture should be incorporated in marine planning initiatives and developed in consideration of local ecological, environmental, economic, and social context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Derelict fishing gear is a global problem, damaging marine ecosystems via habitat degradation and trapping marine life, thereby impacting fisheries. We conducted a global review of reasons for commercial gear loss, and used the findings to design a survey focused on coastal British Columbia (BC), Canada. We conducted dockside and on-line surveys of commercial fishers to record their experiences with lost gear across net, line, and trap gear types. The most common reasons for gear loss from the global review were interactions with other fishing vessels and their gear, marine weather, and snagging on submerged features. Survey results of 29 fishers in BC indicated that snagging gear on rough substrate was the most important reason for loss across all gear categories, followed by seafloor type. Other reasons for gear loss varied by net, line, and trap gear type. Understanding reasons for gear loss is important to reduce losses. • Interactions with other vessels/gear and marine weather lead to global gear loss. • Snagging on rough seafloor was the top gear loss reason in Canada's Pacific. • Fishers in Canada's Pacific made changes to how they fish to prevent gear loss. • Gear maintenance and education can prevent gear loss in Pacific Canada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapidly progressing field of cumulative effects mapping is highly dependent on data quality and quantity. Availability of spatial data on the location of human activities on or affecting the ocean has substantially improved our understanding of potential cumulative effects. However, datasets for some activities remain poor and increased access to current, high resolution data are needed. Here we present an updated analysis of potential cumulative effects in Canada’s Pacific marine waters. New, updated datasets and methodological improvements over the previous analysis were completed, including a new index for land-based effects on marine habitats, updated habitat classes and a modified treatment of vulnerability scores. The results show increased potential cumulative effects for the region. Fishing remains the biggest overall impact amongst marine activities, while land-based activities have the highest impact per unit area in affected ocean areas. Intertidal areas were the most affected habitat per unit area, while pelagic habitats had the highest total cumulative effect score. Regular updates of cumulative effects assessments will make them more useful for management, but these require regularly updated, high resolution datasets across all activity types, and automated, well-documented procedures to make them accessible to managers and policy-makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While efforts to meet international commitments to counter biodiversity declines by establishing networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) continue, assessments of MPAs rarely take into account measures of effectiveness of different categories of protection, or other design principles (size, spacing, governance considerations). We carried out a meta-analysis of ecological effectiveness of IUCN Categories I–II (no-take), IV and VI (MPAs) compared to unprotected areas. We then applied our ecological effectiveness estimates – the added benefit of marine protection over and above conventional fisheries management – to a gap analysis of existing MPAs, and MPAs proposed by four indigenous groups on the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada. Additionally, we assessed representation, size, spacing, and governance considerations against MPA design criteria outlined in the literature. We found significant differences in response ratios for IUCN Categories IV and VI MPAs compared to no-take reserves and areas open to fishing, although variability in responses was high. By rescaling the predicted ecological effectiveness ratios (including confidence estimates), we found that, compared to no-take reserves (biodiversity conservation effectiveness 100%) and open fishing areas (0% additional biodiversity contribution over and above conventional fisheries management), IUCN Category IV had a predicted effectiveness score of 60%, ranging between 34% and 89% (95% lower and upper confidence intervals, respectively), and IUCN Category VI had a predicted effectiveness score of 24% (ranging between −12% and 72% for the 95% lower and upper confidence intervals, respectively). We found that the existing MPAs did poorly when compared against most MPA design criteria, whereas the proposed MPA network achieved many of the best practices identified in the literature, and could achieve all if some additional sites were added. By using the Central Coast of British Columbia as a case study, we demonstrated a method for applying empirically-based ecological effectiveness estimates to an assessment of MPA design principles for an existing and proposed network of MPAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Canada''s Pacific coast is one region where there is a renewed commitment to pursue marine spatial planning (MSP). The British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis (BCMCA) project aimed to set the stage for MSP, and was designed to provide resource managers, scientists, decision-makers, and stakeholders with a new set of resources to inform coast-wide integrated marine planning and management initiatives. Geographic Information Systems and the decision support tool Marxan were used to develop two main products: (1) an atlas of known marine ecological values and human uses; and (2) analyses of areas of conservation value and human use value. 110 biophysical datasets and 78 human use datasets were collated and refined where applicable, as identified through five ecological expert workshops, one expert review of physical marine classification and representation, and guidance from the human use data working group. Ecological data richness maps and Marxan results show the importance of nearshore and continental shelf regions. Data richness maps for the six categories of human uses show that all, except shipping and transport, are also closely linked to the shoreline and continental shelf. An example ecological Marxan solution identifying areas of conservation value overlapped human use sector footprints by percentages ranging from 92% (i.e., 92% of planning units selected by Marxan also contain commercial fisheries) to 3%. The experience of the BCMCA project has the potential to provide valuable guidance to regions seeking to jump-start planning processes by collating spatial information and carrying out exploratory analyses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We compared and integrated marine protected areas proposed through community and scientific assessments in 2 regions of British Columbia, Canada. The community priorities were identified during individual and group interviews with knowledgeable resource users. The scientific priorities were developed with abiotic and biotic data in Marxan, a decision-support tool. The resulting maps of community-based and science-based priorities were very similar for the inshore areas, which lent credibility to both approaches. The resource users thought the science-based maps were fairly good at highlighting areas important for conservation, but preferred the scenarios that integrated the 2 maps to either constituent map. Incorporating spatial variation in human impacts on the marine areas and commercial fishing, which are both costs of protection, into our Marxan analyses led to scenarios that were different from either constituent map. Our results show the value of integrating community-based and science-based approaches in conservation planning to achieve community acceptance and conservation utility. They also reveal that people's assessments on the basis of their traditional ecological knowledge may serve as a reasonable proxy for scientific approaches in selecting areas of ecological value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine protected areas (MPAs) can be an effective tool for marine biodiversity conservation, yet decision-makers usually have limited and biased datasets with which to make decisions about where to locate MPAs. Using commonly available abiotic and biotic datasets, I asked how many datasets are necessary to achieve robust patterns of conservation importance. I applied a decision support tool for marine protected area design in two regions of British Columbia, Canada, and sequentially excluded the datasets with the most limited geographic distribution. I found that the reserve selection method was robust to some missing datasets. The removal of up to 15 of the most geographically limited datasets did not significantly change the geographic patterns of the importance of areas for conservation. Indeed, including abiotic datasets plus at least 12 biotic datasets resulted in a spatial pattern similar to including all available biotic datasets. It was best to combine abiotic and biotic datasets in order to ensure habitats and species were represented. Patterns of clustering differed according to whether I used one set alone or both combined. Biotic datasets served as better surrogates for abiotic datasets than vice versa, and both represented more biodiversity features than randomly selected reserves. These results should provide encouragement to decision-makers engaged in MPA planning with limited spatial data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community and resource user support has often been declared as essential to achieving globally agreed targets for marine protection. Given that indigenous people in Canada have resource use rights, we engaged two indigenous communities in British Columbia for their views on marine planning and protected areas. We developed a three-phased approach for executing our research: building research partnerships, carrying out individual interviews, and holding community discussion sessions. Participants expressed a common goal of recovering depleted species and ensuring the sustainability of indigenous fishing. We found strong support for spatial protection measures, and significant overlaps amongst participants in the areas suggested for protection. The most common type of protection recommended by participants was the exclusion of commercial and recreational fisheries while allowing for indigenous fishing; this stands in contrast to the emphasis on strict no-take MPAs advocated in the literature. Similarities in the goal, and level and areas of protection point to a gap in conservation approaches: the conservation of important areas and resources to indigenous people, allowing the continued practice and adaptation of their culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are important conservation tools for safeguarding marine systems, yet they are increasingly impacted by climate change. Connectivity is a fundamental aspect of MPA design and evaluation, but regional patterns of marine ecological connectivity are often not well understood, nor how connectivity patterns may be affected by climate change. Our objective was to assess how ecological connectivity between MPAs may shift with projected ocean temperature changes in the Northern Shelf Bioregion in British Columbia, Canada, and demonstrate a potential approach that can be used in other systems. We conducted a case study with Dungeness Crab (Metacarcinus magister) and Shortspine Thornyhead (Sebastolobus alascanus) using benthic temperature outputs from a regional ocean model for hindcast (1981–2010) and future (2041–2070) periods coupled with species' environmental preference information. We evaluated MPA exposure to projected temperature changes and suitability for the adult stage of the focal species. Using existing least-cost and circuit theory-based tools more often applied in terrestrial systems, we identified potential linkages between MPAs via adult movement, simulating both optimal and probabilistic paths, then compared MPA interconnectedness between time periods. There was a marked decrease in MPA suitability and interconnectedness for Shortspine Thornyhead under projected future climates, while there was a marked increase in MPA suitability for Dungeness Crab and minor increase in MPA interconnectedness. Given the contrasting results in connectivity changes when examining just two species, this study highlights the challenge of building climate resilience in MPA network designs with multispecies objectives. • It is not well understood how regional connectivity patterns may be affected by climate change. • Least-cost and circuit theory-based tools developed for terrestrial systems were applied in a marine conservation context. • Increased benthic temperatures had contrasting impacts on marine protected area interconnectedness for two example species. • Incorporating climate resilience into marine protected area design is a challenge when there are multispecies objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small-scale fisheries depend on availability of and access to resources. Yet research on access – the combination of rights and capacities that enable fishers to benefit from available resources – has been limited compared to research on availability in Canadian fisheries. We surveyed 118 independent fishers in British Columbia, Canada to understand access rights (harvesting, entrance, transferability, security and protection), capacities (physical, human, social, cultural, political and financial assets), economic benefits from fishing, and actions to maintain or increase access. Participants generally perceived: strengths in physical, human and cultural assets; varied status in social and financial assets; and weaknesses in political assets. Access rights were generally perceived as poor with the exception of transfer rights. We employed modeling approaches to understand demographic characteristics of participants with higher rights and capacity, and which factors predicted feasibility and economic benefits of fishing. Higher perceived rights and capacities were both predicted by whether the participant self-identified as Indigenous. Higher feasibility of fishing was associated with higher political and financial assets, higher rights, being non-Indigenous, rural residence, and higher incomes. Higher income from fishing was predicted by higher financial assets and being non-Indigenous. Qualitative results showed participants maintain or gain access through: preparation; non-political networking; political advocacy; augmenting licenses or quota; or, diversification and intensification of fishing activities. Yet, many participants reported feeling powerless. Our research emphasizes the need to address access in fisheries management. Our novel conceptualization and mixed methods approach to study access rights and capacities can be adapted and applied elsewhere. • The viability of small-scale fisheries livelihoods depends on both availability of and access to resources. • Access refers to the combination of rights and capacities that enable fishers to benefit from available resources. • We surveyed 118 small-scale fishers on the Pacific Coast of Canada to understand access rights, capacities, and benefits. • Fishers perceived strong physical, human and cultural assets, varied financial assets, and weak political assets and rights. • Our novel and mixed methods approach to study access rights and capacities might be adapted and applied elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses novel and complex challenges to planning, management, and policies for marine and coastal social-ecological systems. Despite ongoing discussion of adopting interventions for improving adaptation and adaptive capacity to climate change, practitioners often continue to carry out conventional management strategies that do not effectively incorporate climate change impacts and projections. Using a web-based survey and semi-structured interviews, we explored the perceptions of practitioners (coastal managers and planners) in British Columbia, Canada relative to climate change risks, adaptation actions for social and ecological systems, and barriers for adaptation within the region. Overall, practitioners shared a concern that climate change is not currently well incorporated in management or policy in this region, and noted significant implementation gaps. Practitioners expressed more support for ecological adaptation actions that are well suited to regional implementation, such as incorporating climate change projections into management and reducing fisheries overexploitation, than for actions such as protecting specific areas. Social adaptation actions were overall perceived as less useful than ecological adaptation actions, and actions that would support local management and monitoring efforts were viewed as more useful than developing alternative livelihoods. The main barriers and associated opportunities for climate change adaptation in marine management included political action, reducing scientific uncertainty, improving communication, and increasing capacity (both funding and staff). Additional opportunities include effective engagement with Indigenous governance, improving policies and funding for adaptation including monitoring, and focusing efforts on communication and education programs specific to practitioners and communities. This study demonstrates the necessity of collaboration across scales of management for effective climate change adaptation. Image 1 • Climate change adaptation strategies are inadequately incorporated in management. • We explore the perspectives of practitioners from diverse backgrounds in a single region. • Ecological adaptations are more supported than social adaptation, but both are needed. • Better capacity, communication, and collaborations are needed for effective adaptations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recreational fisheries often pose various challenges for monitoring. Conventional techniques, such as aerial-roving creel surveys, can lead to estimation bias as they are limited to sampling fragments of these fisheries, which are often fluid and temporally dynamic. In British Columbia, Canada, the existing aerial-roving framework for monitoring marine recreational salmon fisheries relies on angler testimony to report diel temporal distribution of angling and flights to scale-up effort estimation. This work involved implementing two shore-based autonomous cameras set at high capture-rates. One system allowed for the estimation of harbour-specific effort and retention, while the second system informed the timing of angler use by monitoring a popular nearby fishing location. We employed a two-step image filtering system which included the use of a novel deep learning-based system involving a Gaussian Mixture Model-based motion detector for the automatic detection of vessels, to efficiently analyze over one million images. We calculated effort and retention estimates using catch-per-unit effort data from interviews and detailed the diel activity of observed fishing using empirical cumulative distribution and activity pattern analyses. We found that creel estimates were predicting the timing of fishing relatively well, but alone, they may be failing to account for substantial effort in the afternoons. We also provided new insight into a notable amount of off-season fishing effort, which is currently lacking in creel estimates, by surveying beyond peak-season. Our findings suggest that cameras can provide a viable tool in British Columbia for extending the temporal resolution of existing methods while providing an efficient and cost-effective alternative to flights to expand effort data. Increasing camera monitoring to cover additional marinas and popular fishing locales could improve estimation and protect vital fish species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapidly developing and complex climate change impacts have profound implications for coastal communities, demanding adaptation actions for both social and ecological systems. Along the coast of British Columbia, Canada, Indigenous peoples developed a tightly coupled social-ecological system that was interrupted by the arrival of settler colonialism in the 1800s. Although both climate change adaptation and the impacts of colonization have been well studied, little research has examined how these themes interact, and the conditions that may support or prevent people's ability to adapt to the social-ecological changes that emerge. Through a collaborative partnership with four First Nations and their umbrella organization for technical support, we examined people's perceptions of social and ecological aspects of adaptation to climate change. Using semistructured interviews (n = 50), four key strategies emerged as critical for climate change adaptation: (1) strengthening Indigenous governance autonomy and authority, (2) promoting knowledge sharing for adaptation practices within and among communities, (3) promoting adaptive comanagement among governance scales, and (4) developing learning platforms for climate impacts and adaptive strategies. Actions typically proposed by non-Indigenous government, including marine protected areas and ecosystem-based management were not prioritized. We found diverse attitudes toward climate change impacts, indicating that people's perceptions of adaptation strategies are strongly influenced by exposure to observable impacts, the social-ecological context in which they live, and perceptions of governance and self-determination. Our study suggests that supporting Indigenous peoples' ability to adapt to climate change will require transforming the current governance model into one that acknowledges Indigenous social, cultural, and food needs and how these relate to marine resources and territorial management rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are important conservation tools that can support the resilience of marine ecosystems. Many countries, including Canada, have committed to protecting at least 10% of their marine areas under the Convention on Biological Diversity's Aichi Target 11, which includes connectivity as a key aspect. Connectivity, the movement of individuals among habitats, can enhance population stability and resilience within and among MPAs. However, little is known about regional spatial patterns of marine ecological connectivity, particularly adult movement. We developed a method to assess and design MPA networks that maximize inferred connectivity within habitat types for adult movement when ecological data are limited. We used the Northern Shelf Bioregion in British Columbia, Canada, to explore two different approaches: (1) evaluating sites important for inferred regional connectivity (termed hotspots) and (2) assessing MPA network configurations based on their overlap with connectivity hotspots and interconnectedness between MPAs. To assess inferred connectivity via adult movement, we used two different threshold distances (15 and 50 km) to capture moderate home ranges, which are most appropriate to consider in MPA design. We applied graph theory to assess inferred connectivity within 16 habitat and depth categories (proxies for distinct ecological communities), and used novel multiplex network methodologies to perform an aggregated assessment of inferred connectivity. We evaluated inferred regional connectivity hotspots based on betweenness and eigenvector centrality metrics, finding that the existing MPA network overlapped a moderate proportion of these regional hotspots and identified key areas to be considered as candidate MPAs. Network density among existing MPAs was low within the individual habitat networks, as well as the multiplex. This work informs an ongoing MPA planning process, and approaches for incorporating connectivity into MPA design when data are limited, with lessons for other contexts., (© 2019 The Authors. Ecological Applications published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Ecological Society of America.)

Background: Marine populations have been declining at a worrying rate, due in large part to fishing pressures. The challenge is to secure a future for marine life while minimizing impacts on fishers and fishing communities., Methods and Principal Findings: Rather than selecting areas where fishing is banned -- as is usually the case with spatial management -- we assess the concept of designating areas where fishing is permitted. We use spatial catch statistics for thirteen commercial fisheries on Canada's west coast to determine the minimum area that would be needed to maintain a pre-ascribed target percentage of current catches. We found that small reductions in fisheries yields, if strategically allocated, could result in large unfished areas that are representative of biophysical regions and habitat types, and have the potential to achieve remarkable conservation gains., Conclusions: Our approach of selecting fishing areas instead of reserves could help redirect debate about the relative values that society places on conservation and extraction, in a framework that could gain much by losing little. Our ideas are intended to promote discussions about the current status quo in fisheries management, rather than providing a definitive solution.