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British Columbia (BC) recently released the CleanBC policy framework to promote clean energy and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, CleanBC lacks concrete measures to reverse the growth of energy demand. Although BC has rich biomass and hydroelectric resources, it remains unclear whether these renewable resources will be enough to meet future energy demand. In this work, the potential in BC for increasing production and use of bioenergy, renewable electricity, and low‐carbon hydrogen was assessed, and the most efficient measures were identified. Energy scenarios were constructed to explore BC's future renewable energy demands for meeting GHG mitigation targets. The results show that CleanBC will drastically raise renewable energy demands but fail to achieve the 2030 target without radical demand reduction. Seen as the core strategy in CleanBC, electrification will require at least 60 PJ of additional electricity supply for 2030 and 160 PJ for carbon neutrality in 2050. This implies implementing wind and solar generation in capacities comparable to massive hydroelectric projects. Alternative to electrification is the bioenergy‐centred strategy. Existing waste biomass must be fully exploited; even then, roughly 250 and 460 PJ of additional primary bioenergy will be needed for 2030 and 2050, respectively, well beyond any foreseeable waste supply within BC. Hence, it is essential to utilize all the available biomass and renewable electricity resources and promote a diversified renewable energy portfolio. Hydrogen used as an energy carrier must be produced from natural gas with carbon capture to avoid competition for the limited renewable energy resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an example of the kind of analysis needed to support better targeted policies to reduce the environmental impacts of agricultural activities, using the specific case of Anaerobic Digestion (AD) to treat animal manure and other agricultural and food wastes in British Columbia (BC). Economic and life cycle environmental performance metrics are estimated to compare integrated and stand-alone systems using the resulting biogas and digestate. Using biogas for heating outperforms purifying it for distribution as renewable natural gas (RNG). However, current policy and energy prices in BC perversely support RNG, making biogas-fired heating systems economically unattractive. The performance of biogas-fired heating system can be improved and their dependence on subsidies reduced by integration with local agricultural activities, exploiting CO 2 and digestate as by-products. Biogenic CO 2 , from combustion of the biogas and from mushroom cultivation, can displace natural gas use in producing CO 2 -enriched atmospheres to enhance growth rates in greenhouse production. Using digestate as growing media in greenhouses and mushroom cultivation can generate significant revenues but the environmental benefits are nugatory. Co-digestion of food waste can further improve performance by increasing biogas yield. With all extra benefits combined, integrated AD systems can increase both GHG mitigation and revenues by at least 80%. The analysis illustrates the general point that, to avoid perverse outcomes, policy measures must support options based on their actual GHG mitigation benefits, rather than targetting any specific technology. Image 1 • Biogas heating has higher GHG mitigation at lower cost than CHP or RNG. • Stand-alone biogas options require financial support from policy measures in BC. • Integrating AD into a broader system achieves further GHG and economic benefits. • Policy measures need to be supported by such systematic analyses. Integration of anaerobic digestion with agricultural activities can further reduce energy and material consumption and achieve substantial environmental and economic benefits from stand-alone biogas options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving economic competitiveness is the key for sustainable development of the wood pellet industry. To support this development, we have carried out a comprehensive techno-economic evaluation of five possible process configurations for production of conventional (CWP) and torrefied (TWP) wood pellets in the Canadian province of British Columbia (BC), based on process simulation with multi-scale models involved as illustrated in the graphical abstract. A novel heat integration strategy is proposed for the TWP production process to avoid the use of N 2 and achieve auto-thermal operation. In comparison with CWPs, producing TWPs in the operating sequence drying, torrefaction, grinding, pelletization can reduce production costs by about 10% and reduce delivered costs to both domestic and overseas markets by about 20%. It is essential that the TWP plant is located in a region with abundant and low-cost feedstock, low electricity price, low labor cost, and efficient distribution logistics. Due to the low capital cost contribution (10%), torrefaction could be implemented by either building a new plant or upgrading an existing conventional pellet plant. The market analysis reveals that the future market for TWPs from BC is expected to lie outside Canada, in the Asia Pacific region, and Europe, unless significant domestic policy measures are introduced to promote Canadian use of TWPs. • Torrefied wood pellets (TWP) costs 20% less than conventional pellets over supply chains. • BC pellets are expected to lie outside Canada, especially in the Asia Pacific region. • The best pathway to produce TWPs is drying- > torrefaction > grinding- > pelletization. • TWPs can be produced auto-thermally without N 2 and catalyst. • The critical production costs for TWPs are raw material, electricity, and labor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Torrefied wood pellets have better performances than conventional pellets. • Replacing coal with BC torrefied pellets reduces GHG emissions by at least 85%. • GHG reductions are greatest when BC pellets are used overseas. • The most efficient processing sequence is drying-torrefaction-grinding-pelleting. • In addition to carbon tax, other mechanisms are needed to support pellet industry. With increasing international trade in wood pellets for use as fuel, the carbon footprint over the supply chain is of growing concern. The Canadian province of British Columbia (BC) is endowed with clean electricity and rich biomass resources, which are essential for developing a low-carbon wood pellet industry. This work aims to quantify the life cycle Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions of torrefied wood pellets in comparison with conventional pellets, derived from forest residues in BC and transported to replace coal at power plants in Europe, the Asia Pacific region and elsewhere in Canada. The GHG reduction costs in different markets are also quantified. Five possible production configurations are analysed with uncertainties taken into consideration. Torrefied wood pellets are found to have better environmental performance than conventional pellets. The best production process, which follows the sequence drying-torrefaction-grinding-pelletization, can reduce primary energy consumption and carbon footprint by about 30% compared to conventional pellets. Over the life cycle, transportation contributes most GHG emissions (>50%), while electricity use, including sawmilling and pellet production, represents the greatest energy consumption (~50%). Life cycle analysis reveals that GHG emissions from the supply chain offset at most 15% of the savings from using BC torrefied wood pellets to replace coal. GHG reductions are greatest when the pellets are used in overseas markets, especially the Asia Pacific region and the EU, rather than domestic Canadian markets. The current carbon taxation level cannot cover the abatement cost of BC pellets; other mechanisms are still needed to support the sustainable development of the industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aims to provide a comprehensive in-depth analysis of the life cycle environmental and economic performance of some key global supply chains for torrefied wood pellets (TWP) used as bulk fuel, including their contribution to the bio-economy of the region where they are produced, and the effects of carbon accounting and carbon tax policies on the TWP trade. TWPs produced in British Columbia (BC), the western-most province of Canada, are taken as a specific example, with the results compared with pellets produced in other Canadian provinces, Southeast US and Vietnam. It is found that BC has comparative advantages in TWP production, benefiting from abundant biomass resources, availability of low-carbon electricity, existence of a well-developed forest product industry, and accessibility to international markets. The suitability of different domestic and overseas markets is assessed. In Canada, there is great potential demand for BC TWPs in the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In the Asia-Pacific region and Europe, BC pellets are not cost-competitive compared with pellets from Vietnam and Southeast US, due to higher production costs arising in part from BC's high carbon tax. However, BC producers have supply advantages over producers in Vietnam and the Southeast US in the province's abundant biomass and clean electricity supply. Transforming production from conventional to torrefied pellets can increase the contribution of the industry to the regional economy. The carbon accounting and carbon tax policies in different countries/regions will impact the TWP trade, and merit further study. • Several key global torrefied wood pellet (TWP) supply chains are compared. • BC has comparative advantages in TWP production compared with other Canadian provinces. • The domestic overseas markets of BC TWPs are identified. • The contributions of TWP to the regional bio-economy are identified. • The effects of carbon accounting and carbon tax policies on TWP trade are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the anticipated environmental benefits from integrating a dairy farm and a greenhouse; the integration is based on anaerobic digestion of manures to produce biogas energy, biogenic CO 2 , and digested slurry. A full Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been conducted on six modeled cases applicable in British Columbia, to evaluate non-renewable energy consumption, climate change, acidification, eutrophication, respiratory effects and human toxicity. Compared to conventional practice, an integrated system has the potential to nearly halve eutrophication and respiratory effects caused by inorganic emissions and to reduce non-renewable energy consumption, climate change, and acidification by 65–90%, while respiratory effects caused by organic emissions become negative as co-products substitute for other materials. Co-digestion of other livestock manures, greenhouse plant waste, or food and food processing waste with dairy manure can further improve the performance of the integrated system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Symbiotic integration of agricultural activities is widespread but quantitative assessments of the environmental benefits are scarce. To explore the potential benefits of applying the industrial symbiosis approach in agriculture and horticulture, a detailed case study is reported of a potential Eco-Industrial Park (EIP) including three activities: dairy farming, greenhouse cultivation of vegetables, and mushroom growing. These activities are widespread world-wide but, to enable quantitative assessment, the specific EIP studied is located in the Canadian province of British Columbia (BC). The activities are linked by anaerobic digestion of dairy manure to produce biogas and digestate. Biogas replaces natural gas to supply heat to the farms and carbon dioxide (CO 2) to the greenhouse. Digestate is separated into a liquid fertilizer and a solid substrate; the former replaces chemical fertilizers and the latter can be utilized as cow bedding and growing medium for plants and mushrooms. Mushroom growing emits CO 2 which is conventionally ventilated but can be used for stimulating plant growth in the greenhouse. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used to quantify the environmental benefits of the EIP compared to conventional independent farms. Non-renewable energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, aquatic acidification, respiratory effects from organic emissions, and human toxicity can be reduced by 50%–90% and aquatic eutrophication and respiratory effects from inorganic emissions can be reduced by more than 10%. Such EIPs can also alleviate nutrient management problems in regions with intensive livestock farming. • An LCA model of EIP linking AD of dairy manure, greenhouse and mushroom operations. • Exchange of by-products enhances energy and material self-sufficiency. • Digestate utilisation within the EIP improves nutrient management. • Reductions of ∼60% achievable in non-renewable energy use and global warming potential. • Reductions of 10%–90% achievable across five other life cycle impact categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]