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Female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) have high rates of alcohol and amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use, increasing risk for HIV/sexually transmitted infections (STI), and other negative outcomes. A prospective cohort of 1,198 FESW in a HIV/ATS use prevention intervention in Cambodia was assessed for alcohol and stimulant use disorders (AUD and SUD) using the Alcohol and Substance Use Involvement (ASSIST) scale. STI history was measured by self-report at baseline and at quarterly follow-up visits. Participants were asked if they had been diagnosed with an STI by a medical provider in the past 3 months. Marginal structural models were used to estimate joint effects of AUD and SUD on recent STI. At baseline, one-in-four screened AUD positive and 7% screened positive for SUD. At 18-months, 26% reported ≥1 recent STI. Accounting for time-varying and other known confounders, the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) for recent STI associated with AUD alone and SUD alone were 2.8 (95% CI:1.5–5.1) and 3.5 (95% CI:1.1–11.3), respectively. The AOR for joint effects of AUD and SUD was 5.7 (95% CI:2.2–15.2). AUD and SUD are independently and jointly associated with greater odds of STI among Cambodian FESW. Further research is critical for understanding how AUD and SUD potentiate biological and behavioural pathways that influence STI acquisition and to inform HIV risk-reduction interventions in FESW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) are vulnerable to violence, which impedes safer sex behaviors and increases risk of HIV. FESW are also disproportionately affected by co-occurring psychosocial health conditions, including substance use, depression, and economic insecurity, which increased risk of exposure to violence. We used a syndemic framework to examine the effects of co-occurring psychosocial conditions on the risk of client-perpetrated physical and sexual violence against FESW. Data were collected among 1198 Cambodian FESW on recent client–perpetrated physical and sexual violence, and psychosocial conditions (psychological distress, alcohol consumption, amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use, debts, housing, and food insecurity). Bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions were conducted. Prevalence of physical and sexual violence from clients was 4.8% and 6.9%, respectively. Client-perpetrated physical violence was associated with housing insecurity, ATS use, and psychological distress. All psychosocial conditions, except ATS, were associated with exposure to sexual violence. In multivariable models, odds of client-perpetrated physical violence were twice higher among women with ≥ 4 compared to ≤ 3 psychosocial conditions. Risk of sexual violence increased with the number of psychosocial conditions. Compared to those with ≤ 1 condition, FESW with two psychosocial conditions had twice the odds (AOR = 2.08; 95% CI 1.00–4.31) and women with 5–6 psychosocial conditions had eightfold higher odds (AOR = 8.10; 95% CI 3.4–19.31) of sexual violence from clients. Our findings support a syndemic model of co-occurring psychosocial conditions among FESW that are associated with increased risk of violence. Violence prevention interventions targeting FESW should adopt comprehensive approaches that address co-occurring psychosocial conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Engagement in prevention services is crucial to reducing HIV risk among female entertainment and sex workers (FESW), and SMARTgirl is the national social marketing HIV prevention program for Cambodian women engaged in sex and entertainment work. Informed by the Behavioral Model of Vulnerable Populations, three multivariate logistic regression analyses examined correlates of three indices of engagement along the SMARTgirl HIV prevention continuum: (1) receipt of outreach services (past 3 months); (2) being registered as a SMARTgirl member; and (3) SMARTgirl club attendance (past year). Among the 1077 FESW enrolled in nine Cambodian provinces, women working in a brothel or freelance (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.48; 95% CI 1.44–4.26) and those exchanging sex for drugs during the past 3 months (aOR 0.45; 95% CI 0.25–0.81) had significantly lower odds of contact with a SMARTgirl outreach worker. Women who reported having more than ten sexual partners in the past 3 months (aOR 0.54; 95% CI 0.32–0.89) and those who reported binge alcohol use (aOR 0.53; 95% CI 0.29–0.98) had significantly lower odds of being registered as SMARTgirl members. Exchanging sex for drugs was also associated with increased odds of attending a SMARTgirl club (aOR 2.03; 95% CI 1.04–3.98). Novel methods to deliver HIV prevention services are warranted to more effectively reach FESW who exchange sex for drugs, engage in binge alcohol use, report a greater number of sexual partners, and those not working in established work venues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study related to behavioral interventions in female sex and entertainment workers of Cambodia using amphetamine-type stimulants. Topics discussed include HIV prevention programs deployment in the country and its contribution to decline in HIV incidences, negative impact of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) on HIV prevention, cognitive behavioral treatments and conditional cash transfer (CCT) being evidence based approaches for reduced sexual risk taking.

Human papillomavirus is a common sexually transmitted infection and the causative agent for cervical cancer, a frequently occurring malignant disease among women in developing countries. We assessed human papillomavirus awareness prior to the delivery of a brief information and education intervention, and human papillomavirus vaccine provision to female entertainment and sex workers (N = 220). At baseline, only 23.6% of women had heard of human papillomavirus. Following the educational intervention, 90% answered all the human papillomavirus knowledge questions correctly. Of 192 participants attending the first quarterly cohort visit where vaccine was offered, 149 (78%) were eligible for vaccination; HIV-positive (n = 32) and pregnant (n = 11) women were excluded. Acceptance of vaccine among eligible women was universal, and 79.2% completed the three-dose vaccination series. Women who reported use of amphetamine-type stimulants had significantly and independently lower odds of vaccine completion (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.24; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.08, 0.69). New pregnancies also had an impact on vaccine completion: 5.4% (8/149 5.4%) who started the series had to stop due to new pregnancy. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of a simple education intervention designed to increase human papillomavirus knowledge and the feasibility of successful human papillomavirus vaccine in a population that is often difficult to engage in preventive health care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess concordance between self-reported amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use and toxicology results among young female sex workers (FSW) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Methods: Cross-sectional data from the Young Women's Health Study-2 (YWHS-2), a prospective study of HIV and ATS use among young (15 to 29 years) FSW in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, was analyzed. The YWHS-2 assessed sociodemographic characteristics, HIV serology, HIV risk, and ATS use by self-report and urine toxicology testing at each quarterly visit, the second of which provided data for this assessment. Outcomes include sensitivity, specificity, positive- and negative predictive values (overall and stratified by age), sex-work setting, and HIV status. Results: Among 200 women, prevalence of positive toxicology screening for ATS use was 14% (95% confidence interval [CI], 9.2, 18.9%) and concurrent prevalence of self-reported ATS was 15.5% (95% CI, 10.4, 20.6%). The sensitivity and specificity of self-reported ATS use compared to positive toxicology test results was 89.3% (25/28), and 96.5% (166/172), respectively. The positive predictive value of self-reported ATS use was 80.6% (25/31); the negative predictive value was 98.2% (166/169). Some differences in concordance between self-report and urine toxicology results were noted in analyses stratified by age group and sex-work setting but not by HIV status. Conclusion: Results indicate a high prevalence of ATS use among FSW in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and high concordance between self-reported and toxicology-test confirmed ATS use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: Amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use has increased in Cambodia and emerged as a significant problem among female sex workers (FSWs), potentially contributing to increased risk of HIV. We examined the prevalence of ATS use and its effect on sexual risk behaviors, and sexually transmitted infections (STI) among FSWs in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Methods: A one-year prospective study among young women engaged in sex work in brothels, entertainment establishments and on a freelance basis. Socio-demographics, sexual risks, and recent ATS use were assessed by self-report. Blood and urine samples were collected to detect HIV, Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC). Bivariate and multivariate longitudinal analyses were conducted to assess the effects of ATS use on number of sex partners, inconsistent condom use with paying partners and incident STI. Results: ATS use was higher among women working freelance (35.6%) and in brothels (34.8%) compared to women working in entertainment establishments (17.7%) or in multiple venues (14.8%). ATS users reported more sex partners and days drunk in the previous month. In multivariate longitudinal analysis, ATS use was associated with having a higher number of sex partners (adjusted relative ratio 1.49; 95% CI: 1.00–2.21) and incident STI (adjusted odds ratio 5.41; 95% CI: 1.15–25.48), but not inconsistent condom use with paying partner. Conclusion: ATS users had more sex partners, high level of alcohol use, and were at increased risk of STI. Our findings underscore ATS use as an important emerging risk exposure that should be integrated into HIV prevention interventions targeting this population. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Although cervical cancer is the leading cancer in Cambodia, most women receive no routine screening for cervical cancer and few treatment options exist. Moreover, nothing is known regarding the prevalence of cervical HPV or the genotypes present among women in the country. Young sexually active women, especially those with multiple sex partners are at highest risk of HPV infection. We examine the prevalence and genotypes of cervical HPV, as well as the associated risk factors among young women engaged in sex work in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study among 220 young women (15-29 years) engaged in sex work in different venues including brothels or entertainment establishments, and on a freelance basis in streets, parks and private apartments. Cervical specimens were collected using standard cytobrush technique. HPV DNA was tested for by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genotyping using type-specific probes for 29 individual HPV types, as well as for a mixture of 10 less common HPV types. All participants were also screened for HIV status using blood samples. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess risk factors for any or multiple HPV infection. Results: The prevalence of cervical HPV 41.1%. HPV 51 and 70 were the most common (5.0%), followed by 16 (4.6%), 71 (4.1%) and 81 (3.7%). Thirty-six women (16.4%) were infected with multiple genotypes and 23.3% were infected with at least one oncogenic HPV type. In multivariate analyses, having HIV infection and a higher number of sexual partners were associated with cervical HPV infection. Risk factors for infection with multiple genotypes included working as freelance female sex workers (FSW) or in brothels, recent binge use of drugs, high number of sexual partners, and HIV infection. Conclusions: This is the first Cambodian study on cervical HPV prevalence and genotypes. We found that HPV infection was common among young FSW, especially among women infected with HIV. These results underscore the urgent need for accessible cervical cancer screening and treatment, as well as for a prophylactic vaccine that covers the HPV subtypes present in Cambodia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Violence, substance use, and HIV disproportionately impact female entertainment and sex workers (FESW), but causal pathways remain unclear.Methods: We examined data from an observational cohort of FESW age 15-29 in Phnom Penh, Cambodia for associations between violence exposure and sexual risk and drug use. Validated measures of physical and sexual violence were assessed at baseline. Self-reported outcomes measured quarterly over the next 12-months included past month sexual partners, consistent condom use by partner type, sex while high, and amphetamine type stimulant (ATS) use. Biomarkers measured quarterly included prostate specific antigen (PSA) and urine toxicology. Generalized estimating equations were fit adjusting for age, education, marital status and sex work venue.Results: Of 220 women, 48% reported physical or sexual violence in the preceding 12-months. Physical violence was associated with increased number of sex partners (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR] 1.33; 95% CI: 1.04-1.71), greater odds of sex while high (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.42; 95% CI: 1.10-5.33), increased days of ATS use (aIRR 2.74; 95% CI: 1.29-5.84) and increased odds of an ATS+ urine screen (aOR 2.80, 95%CI: 1.38-5.66). Sexual violence predicted decreased odds of consistent condom use with non-paying partners (aOR 0.24; 95% CI: 0.10-0.59) and greater odds of a PSA+ vaginal swab (aOR 1.83; 95% CI: 1.13-2.93).Conclusions: Physical and sexual violence are prevalent among Cambodian FESW and associated with subsequent sexual risk and drug use behaviors. Clinical research examining interventions targeting structural and interpersonal factors impacting violence is needed to optimize HIV/AIDS prevention among FESW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Cambodia, HIV infection remains high among female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) and the use of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) is an independent risk factor for unprotected sex and sexually transmitted infections among this group. For decades public health approaches to HIV prevention in low and middle income countries (LMIC) have attempted to target the macro-power relations that shape risk behaviour with structural interventions. Recent research has highlighted that interventions that combine ATS risk reduction, in the form of financial incentives for abstinence, with existing HIV prevention programmes, may also play an important role. However, whether this approach goes far enough as a response to structural drivers of risk requires further examination.Methods: Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 30 FESW (mean age 25 years) from five provinces in Cambodia, as part of formative research for the implementation of the Cambodia Integrated HIV and Drug Prevention (CIPI) trial. The aim was to explore the contexts and drivers of ATS use. Data were analysed using grounded theory.Results: In addition to increasing occupational functionality, ATS were used to control pervasive feelings of 'sadness' in relation to the lived experience of poverty, family and relationship problems. Feeling sad could be viewed as an expression of social suffering, in response to competing priorities and seemingly inescapable constraints imposed by a lack of options for income generation, gender inequalities and stigma. Participants expressed interest in microenterprise (ME) opportunities, particularly vocational training, that could create new work opportunities beyond sex work and ATS use.Conclusion: In addition to reducing ATS use, HIV prevention interventions need to target sources of sadness and social suffering as drivers of risk among FESW in this context. The inclusion of ME opportunities in HIV prevention, to alleviate social suffering, warrants further investigation through qualitative and ethnographic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the prevalence of HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STI) in women sex workers (SWs) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The study assessed women SWs who were below 29 years of age through self-report in a prospective study, and they were examined for HIV and STI by using specimens gathered from their blood and urine. Results show that the risk of infection for HIV and STI were highest among the freelancers who worked as SWs.

We examined the proportion and correlates of loss to follow-up (LTFU) among female entertainment and sex workers (FESWs) in a longitudinal HIV prevention intervention trial in Cambodia. The Cambodia Integrated HIV and Drug Prevention Intervention trial tested a comprehensive package of interventions aimed at reducing amphetamine-type stimulant use and HIV risk among FESWs in ten provinces. The present study estimated the proportion of women LTFU and assessed factors associated with LTFU. Logistic regression analyses were used. Of a total 596 women enrolled, the cumulative proportion of LTFU was 29.5% (n = 176) between zero- and 12-month follow-up. In multivariate analyses, women with no living children (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.6; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1, 2.3) and those who experienced recent food insecurity (AOR 1.7; 95%CI: 1.1, 2.7) were more likely to be LTFU. Women who were members of the SMARTgirl HIV prevention programme for ≥ 6 months compared to non-members were less likely to be LTFU (AOR 0.3; 95%CI: 0.2, 0.6). LTFU was moderately high in this study and similar to other studies, indicating a need for strategies to retain this population in HIV prevention programmes and research. Interventions aimed at stabilizing women's lives, including reducing food insecurity and creating communities of engagement for FESWs, should be considered.

Background: While HIV and unintended pregnancies are both occupational risks faced by female sex workers, the epidemiology of pregnancy and its drivers in this population remains understudied. This includes Cambodia, where the drivers of pregnancy among female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) remain unknown. The current study aimed to examine factors associated with incident pregnancy, as well as describe contraceptive use among FESW in Phnom Penh, Cambodia., Methods: This analysis drew from the Young Women's Health Study (YWHS)-2, a 12-month observational cohort of 220 FESW aged 15-29 years, conducted between August 2009 and August 2010. Interviewer-administered questionnaires were conducted at baseline and quarterly thereafter, alongside HIV and pregnancy testing. Bivariate and multivariable extended Cox regression analysis was used to examine correlates of incident pregnancy., Results: At baseline, 6.8% of participants were pregnant, and only 10.8% reported using hormonal contraceptives, with 11.3% reporting an abortion in the past 3 months. Pregnancy incidence was high, at 22/100 person-years (95% CI: 16.3-30.1). In multivariable analysis, younger age (19-24 years versus 25-29 years) (Adjusted Hazards Ratio (AHR): 2.28; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.22-4.27), lower income (400,000-600,000 Riel (≤150$USD) versus > 600,000 Riel (> 150$USD)) (AHR 2.63; 95% CI 1.02-6.77) positively predicted pregnancy, while higher self-reported condom self-efficacy were associated with reduced pregnancy incidence (AHR 0.89; 95% CI 0.81-0.98)., Conclusions: Results document high incidence of pregnancy and unmet reproductive health needs among FESWs in Cambodia. Findings point to an urgent need for multi-level interventions, including venue-based HIV/STI and violence prevention interventions, in the context of legal and policy reform. High pregnancy incidence in this population may also undermine recruitment and retention into HIV prevention intervention trials. The exploration of innovative and comprehensive sex worker-tailored sexual and reproductive health service models, also as part of HIV prevention intervention trials, is warranted.

Introduction: HIV risk among female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) remains high and use of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) significantly increases this risk. We designed a cluster randomised stepped wedge trial (The Cambodia Integrated HIV and Drug Prevention Implementation (CIPI) study) to test sequentially delivered behavioural interventions targeting ATS use., Methods and Analysis: The trial combines a 12-week Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) intervention with 4 weeks of cognitive-behavioural group aftercare (AC) among FESW who use ATS. The primary goal is to reduce ATS use and unprotected sex among FESW. The CCT+AC intervention is being implemented in 10 provinces where order of delivery was randomised. Outcome assessments (OEs) including biomarkers and self-reported measures of recent sexual and drug use behaviours are conducted prior to implementation, and at three 6-month intervals after completion. Consultation with multiple groups and stakeholders on implementation factors facilitated acceptance and operationalisation of the trial. Statistical power and sample size calculations were based on expected changes in ATS use and unprotected sex at the population level as well as within subjects., Ethics and Dissemination: Ethical approvals were granted by the Cambodia National Ethics Committee; University of New Mexico; University of California, San Francisco; and FHI360. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov. Dissemination of process indicators during the multiyear trial is carried out through annual in-country Stakeholder Meetings. Provincial 'Close-Out' forums are held at the conclusion of data collection in each province. When analysis is completed, dissemination meetings will be held in Cambodia with stakeholders, including community-based discussion sessions, policy briefs and results published and presented in the HIV prevention scientific journals and conferences., Conclusions: CIPI is the first trial of an intervention to reduce ATS use and HIV risk among FESW in Cambodia., Results: Will inform both CCT+AC implementation in low and middle-income countries and programmes designed to reach FESW., Trial Registration Number: NCT01835574; Pre-results., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/)

Background: Accurate measurement of unprotected sex is essential in HIV prevention research. Since 2001, the 100% Condom Use Program targeting female sex workers (FSWs) has been a central element of the Cambodian National HIV/AIDS Strategy. We sought to assess the validity of self-reported condom use using the rapid prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test among Cambodian FSWs., Methods: From 2009 to 2010, we enrolled 183 FSWs in Phnom Penh in a prospective study of HIV risk behavior. Prostate-specific antigen test results from the OneStep ABAcard were compared with self-reported condom use in the past 48 hours at quarterly follow-up visits., Results: Among women positive for seminal fluid at the first follow-up visit, 42% reported only protected sex or no sex in the detection period. Discordant results were more likely among brothel and street-based FSW versus entertainment (56% vs. 17%), recent (last 3 months) amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) users (53% vs. 20%), and those with 5 or more partners in the past month (58% vs. 13%). In multivariable regression models, positive PSA results were associated with recent ATS use (adjusted risk ratio [ARR], 1.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-2.2), having a nonpaying last sex partner (ARR, 1.7; CI, 1.2-2.5), and sex work venue (ARR, 3.0; CI, 1.4-6.5). Correspondingly, women with a nonpaying last sex partner were more likely to report unprotected sex (ARR, 1.5; CI, 1.1-2.2), but no associations were found with sex work venue or ATS use., Conclusions: Results confirm the questionable validity of self-reported condom use among FSW. The PSA biomarker assay is an important monitoring tool in HIV/sexually transmitted infection research including prevention trials.