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This article explores why, by 2005, most Latin American countries supported the Responsibility to Protect (R2P), a doctrine modifying limits on the use of force to address atrocity crimes. I group existing explanations of why Latin American countries apparently changed their long-standing defence of non-intervention following the main explanatory factor they focus on: power asymmetries, government preferences or coalition politics. I find that these accounts downplay a fundamental dimension informing the approaches of Latin American supporters: how to limit interveners. Drawing on Republican security theory (RST), I argue that Latin American supporters faced a dilemma in the R2P debates, especially after the intervention in Iraq in 2003. Latin American supporters favoured crafting solutions to humanitarian problems that simultaneously addressed crises and prevented arbitrary uses of force. I use the Brazilian and Chilean case studies to explore this argument. Brazilian and Chilean governments concluded that their conventional interpretations of limits on the use of force did not offer answers for both humanitarian emergencies and arbitrary uses of force. As a solution, they modified but did not abandon their diplomatic traditions. These governments calculated that humanitarian-intervention norms could be constraints, even if imperfect, on interveners arbitrarily using military force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Background: Obesity is a risk factor for diabetes and its consequences, including accelerated ageing and mortality. The underlying factor could be accumulation of certain lipid moieties, such as ceramides (CER) and diacylgycerol (DAG) within muscle tissue, which are known to promote insulin resistance (IR), induce inflammation and oxidative injury, ultimately altering muscle function. Aim: First, to study the relationship between body composition and age (independent variables) with skeletal muscle accumulation of lipid species, oxidative injury and strength. Second, to analyze the relationship between muscle tissue metabolites and insulin resistance, inflammation and lymphocyte telomere length, the latter as an indicator of ageing. Methodology: The sample included 56 healthy sedentary males, scheduled for inguinal hernia surgery, aged 27 to 80 y. Each individual was subject to anthropometric measurements, body composition assessment through radiologic densitometry (DEXA), measurement of handgrip and quadriceps strength, serum biochemical parameters (lipoproteins, creatinine, high sensitivity C reactive protein [hsCRP], fasting and post glucose insulin and glucose concentrations for calculation of IR through the Matsuda and HOMA-IR indexes), and extraction of peripheral leukocytes for measurement of telomere length. During the surgical procedure, a sample of muscle tissue was obtained (anterior abdominal oblique) in order to measure CER and DAG (and sub species according to chain length and saturation) by mass spectrometry, 4 hydroxy-2-nonenal adducts (4-HNE) using electron microscopy immunohistochemistry, and carboxymethyl-lisine (CML) by immunohistochemistry, the latter as indicators of oxidative stress (OS).Results: Body mass index (BMI) of twenty six individuals was > 25 k/m, while BMI of 7 was > 30 k/m. Overweight/obese individuals, did not exhibit differences in skeletal muscle lipid metabolites, however total CER and specific long chain CER sub-species (20 and 22 carbon) increased significantly among individuals with a central fat distribution (n = 14) as well as in glucose intolerant subjects (n =23). A negative association was found between mononuclear leukocyte telomere length and 20 and 22 carbon CER (rho = − 0.4 and −0.5 0 p < 0.05). Muscle strength was not associated with any of the measured muscle metabolites or markers of OS. A multiple regression analysis accepted central abdominal fat and telomere length as significant predictors of CER (R2 = 0.28). Conclusions: An association was found between accumulation of specific ceramide species in muscle tissue and abdominal obesity, glucose intolerance and shortening of leukocyte telomeres, although not with muscle oxidative injury or dysfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Wind streaks comprise recent aeolian deposits that have been extensively documented on Venus, Earth and Mars. Martian wind streaks are among the most abundant surface features on the planet and commonly extend from the downwind margins of impact craters. Previous studies of wind streaks emerging from crater interior deposits suggested that the mode of emplacement was primarily related to the deposition of silt-sized particles as these settled from plumes. We have performed geologic investigations of two wind streaks clusters; one situated in western Arabia Terra, a region in the northern hemisphere of Mars, and another in an analogous terrestrial site located in southern Patagonia, Argentina, where occurrences of wind streaks emanate from playas within maar craters. In both these regions we have identified bedforms in sedimentary deposits on crater floors, along wind-facing interior crater margins, and along wind streaks. These observations indicate that these deposits contain sand-sized particles and that sediment migration has occurred via saltation from crater interior deposits to wind streaks. In Arabia Terra and in Patagonia wind streaks initiate from crater floors that contain lithic and evaporitic sedimentary deposits, suggesting that the composition of wind streak source materials has played an important role in development. Spatial and topographic analyses suggest that regional clustering of wind streaks in the studied regions directly correlates to the areal density of craters with interior deposits, the degree of proximity of these deposits, and the craters'' rim-to-floor depths. In addition, some (but not all) wind streaks within the studied clusters have propagated at comparable yearly (Earth years) rates. Extensive saltation is inferred to have been involved in its propagation based on the studied terrestrial wind streak that shows ripples and dunes on its surface and the Martian counterpart changes orientation toward the downslope direction where it extends into an impact crater. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Between 1989 and 2003, 100 transplants were performed in 96 patients at the pediatric nephrology unit of the Calvo Mackenna Children's Hospital. Mean age 10.9 ± 3.9 yr (1–17.6), 30% from LD. Donors were younger than 5 yr in five patients and all recipients received an ‘ en bloc’ graft. Original disease was hypo/dysplasia 27%, reflux nephropathy 22 and 17% chronic glomerulonephritis. The immunosuppressive protocol during the first period (n = 56, 1989–2000): Cyclosporine, steroids and azathioprine, and during the second period (n = 44, 2001–2003): FK, steroids, MMF and anti-CD25 antibody (mAbs). AR was reported in 22 patients, 11% in LD, 31% in DD (p < 0.01). The AR rate decreased from 40 to 8% after anti-CD25 monoclonal induction. Patient actuarial survival rate at 1, 3 and 5 yr was 100% for LD and 96% for DD. The overall actuarial graft survival at 1,3, and 5 yr was 96.7, 96.7 and 71% for LD and 89, 76 and 73% for DD donors. Graft survival rate improved from the first period (1989–2000) to the second period (2001–2003; p = 0.05). No difference in graft survival rate with HLA-A,B,DR matching was found. Graft survival rate was better when cold ischemia time was <24 h (p < 0.01). CMV infections increased from 19 to 40% when MMF and anti-CD25 Ab were introduced (p < 0.01). The height/age Z score at 1, 3 and 5 yr post-transplant was −2.2, −2.1, −2.2, respectively, for children older than 7 yr and −1.8, −1.9, −2.1 for those transplanted younger than 7 yr of age who were switched to alternate day steroids (p < 0.01). The cause of graft lost was: chronic rejection eight, non-adherence four, AR four and vascular thrombosis two. The cause of death in two patients was fungus septicemia and accelerated rejection. Pediatric renal transplantation can be performed in our group with acceptable morbidity, low mortality and graft survival rates similar to other reports in North America and Western Europe. Graft survival rate improved with newer immunosuppression and greater experience at the center. Management of non-adherence and chronic rejection remain the major challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field sampling and other experiments were carried out during February 2001 to determine whether different morphodynamic characteristics occurring within an intermediate sandy beach of southern Chile ( ca. 39°S) convey differences in population abundance, tidal movement, burrowing ability and oxygen uptake of the anomuran crab Emerita analoga (Stimpson, 1857). Crabs were collected along transects extended between the lowest swash levels and the retention zone above the effluent line of the south and north end of the beach. Burrowing times of nearly 70 crabs collected at each study site were measured in saturated sands collected from the lowest swash level of each site. Oxygen uptake of crabs was measured in incubation glass bottles. The intertidal zone of the north end of the beach was wider (56 m) and flatter (1/14) than that of the south end (45 m and 1/9, respectively). In general, the swash zone of the north end was significantly wider than the south end throughout the sampling period. The frequency of swashes and number of swash crossings above the effluent line, plus up-wash speed, were usually higher at the steeper south end of the beach. The mean population abundance of E. analoga per linear metre of beach was significantly higher at the north end, whereas density per square metre was significantly higher at the south end. No differences were found in biomass figures. Although the highest abundance of crabs at the north end was usually observed at the lowest swash levels, similar population abundances occurred along all the tidal levels sampled at the south end. Burrowing times of crabs collected from both ends of the beach increased significantly with increasing carapace length and body mass. The mean burrowing time of crabs collected at the south end of the beach was shorter than that of those collected at the north end. Oxygen uptake of E. analoga was positively and exponentially correlated with the size of individuals collected from both ends of the beach. Results of ANCOVA showed no significant difference between the regression lines obtained for the oxygen uptake of crabs collected at both ends of the beach. It is concluded that physical features of each end of the beach seem not to differ enough to produce differences in oxygen uptake of E. analoga, or in the biomass, population structure and body size of crabs, within a single beach of south-central Chile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on ecological assessment of two pulp mill effluent found in Biobio river basin, Chile. The control of ecotoxicological quality of industrial and urban effluent based on individual chemical compounds does not guarantee an adequate protection for the aquatic life. An industrial activity with severe impacts on the aquatic systems are the pulp mills. Among these, pulp mills with Kraft process is of concern since they use chlorine and dioxide chlorine for pulp bleaching . In this process, highly toxic organochlorine compounds are formed. in order to eliminate the toxicity of effluents the substitution of chlorine for chlorine dioxide has been proposed .However, there is not clear evidence of its effectiveness for the effluent.

(1)In order to find new methods for controlling vertebrate populations in pine plantations, habitat modifications and an integrated method incorporating the application of toxic substances and silvicultural practices were applied to rodent outbreaks in two plantations of Pinus radiata (Don.) in central Chile. (2) Two study sites were used, in the first, Three areas were established: a control with no modifications, an area of pruned trees and an area of pruned and thinned trees. Each area had sixteen plots of 0.30 ha each, for experiments with toxic substances. In the second study site, three plots, 50 x 50 m, surrounded by barriers to avoid dispersal of rodents, were established. In these plots, a 4-m wide belt was cleared of vegetation, one had a perch in each corner as lodging places for raptor birds and the other had twenty snap-traps on the borders. The third plot was left control, the borders being marked with stakes. (3) the reductions in debarking damage to trees as a result of habitat modification and the application of application of rodenticides were similar in the short-term. However, silvicultural practices and barriers gradually and continually reduced the damage. In severe outbreaks of rodents, the effectiveness of barriers can be reinforced with selected and restricted application. (4) The barriers increased hererogeneity and prevented rodent dispersal. Trapping in an alternative form of control and killed animal can be sample for post mortem examinations. (5) Improved habitat conditions for predator for birds or mammals are effective long-tem control measures for field rodents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: The diagnostic criteria for myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody (MOG-IgG)-associated disease (MOGAD) were published in 2023. We aimed to determine the performance of the new criteria in Latin American (LATAM) patients compared with the 2018 criteria and explore the significance of MOG-IgG titers in diagnosis., Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of LATAM (Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia) adult patients with one clinical MOGAD event and MOG-IgG positivity confirmed by cell-based assay. Both 2018 and 2023 MOGAD criteria were applied, calculating diagnostic performance indicators., Results: Among 171 patients (predominantly females, mean age at first attack = 34.1 years, mean disease duration = 4.5 years), 98.2% patients met the 2018 criteria, and of those who did not fulfill diagnostic criteria (n = 3), all tested positive for MOG-IgG (one low-positive and two without reported titer). Additionally, 144 (84.2%) patients met the 2023 criteria, of whom 57 (39.5%) had MOG-IgG+ titer information (19 clearly positive and 38 low-positive), whereas 87 (60.5%) patients had no MOG-IgG titer. All 144 patients met diagnostic supporting criteria. The remaining 27 patients did not meet the 2023 MOGAD criteria due to low MOG-IgG (n = 12) or lack of titer antibody access (n = 15), associated with the absence of supporting criteria. The 2023 MOGAD criteria showed a sensitivity of 86% (95% confidence interval = 0.80-0.91) and specificity of 100% compared to the 2018 criteria., Conclusions: These findings support the diagnostic utility of the 2023 MOGAD criteria in an LATAM cohort in real-world practice, despite limited access to MOG-IgG titration., (© 2024 The Author(s). European Journal of Neurology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Academy of Neurology.)

Introduction: The laparoscopic approach for the treatment of gastric cancer has many advantages. However, outside Asia there are few large case series., Aim: To evaluate postoperative morbidity, long-term survival, changes in indication, and the results of laparoscopic gastrectomy., Methods: We included all patients treated with a laparoscopic gastrectomy from 2005 to 2014. We compared results across 2 time periods: 2005-2011 and 2012-2014. Median follow-up was 39 months., Results: Two hundred and eleven patients underwent a laparoscopic gastrectomy (median age 64 years, 55% male patients). In 135 (64%) patients, a total gastrectomy was performed. Postoperative morbidity occurred in 29%. A significant increase in the indication of laparoscopic surgery for stages II-III (32 vs. 45%; p = 0.04) and higher lymph node count (27 vs. 33; p = 0.002) were observed between the 2 periods. The 5-year overall survival was 72%. According to the stage, the 5-year overall survival was 85, 63, and 54% for stage I, II, and III respectively (p < 0.001)., Conclusions: There was an acceptable rate of postoperative complications and the long-term survival was in accordance with the disease stage. There was a higher indication of laparoscopic surgery in stages II-III disease, and higher lymph node count in the latter period of this study., (© 2018 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Background: Previous ecological studies have shown a temporal and spatial association between influenza epidemics and meningococcal disease (MNG); however, none have examined more than two respiratory viruses., Methods: Data were obtained in Chile between 2000 and 2005 on confirmed cases of MNG and all confirmed cases of respiratory viruses (influenza A and B; parainfluenza; adenovirus; and respiratory syncytial virus [RSV]). Both variables were divided by epidemiological weeks, age range, and regions. Models of transference functions were run for rates of MNG., Results: In this period, 1022 reported cases of MNG and 34,737 cases of respiratory virus were identified (25,137 RSV; 4300 parainfluenza; 2527 influenza-A; 356 influenza-B; and 2417 adenovirus). RSV was the major independent virus temporally associated to MNG (it appears one week before MNG), followed by parainfluenza, influenza-B, adenovirus, and influenza-A., Conclusions: The rate of MNG in Chile is temporally associated to all of the respiratory viruses studied, but with variability according age range, and regions., (Copyright © 2014 SEICAP. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

Background: Asthma diagnosis in preschoolers is mostly based on clinical evidence, but a bronchodilator response could be used to help confirm the diagnosis. The objective of this study is to evaluate the utility of bronchodilator response for asthma diagnosis in preschoolers by using spirometry standardised for this specific age group., Methods: A standardised spirometry was performed before and after 200 mcg of salbutamol in 64 asthmatics and 32 healthy control preschoolers in a case-control design study., Results: The mean age of the population was 4.1 years (3-5.9 years) and 60% were females. Almost 95% of asthmatics and controls could perform an acceptable spirometry, but more asthmatics than controls reached forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁) (57% vs. 23%, p=0.033), independent of age. Basal flows and FEV₁ were significantly lower in asthmatics than in controls, but no difference was found between groups in forced vital capacity (FVC) and FEV in 0.5s (FEV₀.₅). Using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, the variable with higher power to discriminate asthmatics from healthy controls was a bronchodilator response (% of change from basal above the coefficient of repeatability) of 25% in forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% (FEF₂₅₋₇₅) with 41% sensitivity, 80% specificity. The higher positive likelihood ratio for asthma equalled three for a bronchodilator response of 11% in FEV₀.₅ (sensitivity 30%, specificity 90%)., Conclusions: In this sample of Chilean preschoolers, spirometry had a very high performance and bronchodilator response was very specific but had low sensitivity to confirm asthma diagnosis., (Copyright © 2013 SEICAP. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

Background: Although global studies such as the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) have provided valuable data on the prevalence of asthma in children in Latin America, there is little information on the relationship between asthma symptoms, pulmonary function, bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR) and atopy in the region., Methods: This study examined the relationship between self-reported wheezing in the past 12 months, pulmonary function, airway responsiveness and atopy in children from a low income population in a neighbourhood of Santiago, Chile. Two random samples (100 each) of children aged 13-14 years who participated in ISAAC phase I were selected according to whether or not they reported wheezing in the past 12 months. Spirometry, the methacholine bronchial challenge test and the prick test were performed in all individuals., Results: Children who reported current wheezing had significantly higher BHR to methacholine compared with those without wheezing (71.6% vs 52.6%; p = 0.007) and no significant difference was found in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (116.7 (12.3)% vs 120.3 (14.5%); p = 0.11). The prevalence of atopy was not significantly different between those children who reported wheezing compared with those who did not (44.2% vs 42.3%; p = 0.89). Multiple regression analysis showed that only BHR to methacholine (OR 2.72, 95% CI 1.25 to 4.13; p = 0.01) and maternal asthma (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.2 to 8.3, p = 0.03) were significant risk factors for current wheezing., Conclusions: Our results support previous findings suggesting that in adolescents from underprivileged populations, self-reported current wheezing is related to BHR but not to atopy.

To identify Trypanosoma cruzi clones from chronically infected individuals, they were transferred to triatomines by the xenodiagnosis test (XD) with Triatoma infestans. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and hybridization assays were performed to detect minicircle DNA in human blood samples and triatomine feces, using probes to determine the T. cruzi clones present. T. cruzi clone 19 (TcI) resulted the most prevalent in humans, with a frequency of 0.70 compared with a frequency of 0.53 in triatomines. T. cruzi clone 39 (TcIId) was the most prevalent in T. infestans, with a frequency of 0.65 compared with 0.33 in humans. The T. cruzi clone 43 (TcIIe) was not detected in blood samples; nevertheless, it was present at a rate of 0.17 in T. infestans feces. In conclusion, the T. cruzi clones are associated to each host, suggesting that selective amplification of clones occurs in human and triatomines.

The defect of 3 beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3 beta HSD) is frequent among hirsute women and clearly dependent on the ethnic composition of the studied population. Our aim was to study the frequency of 3 beta HSD deficit in a group of Chilean hirsute women. Basal and post ACTH concentrations of cortisol, 17 hydroxyprogesterone and 17 hydroxypregnenolone were measured by RIA in 40 hirsute post puberal women and in 15 normal age matched female volunteers. Criteria for considering a 3 beta HDS deficit were 17 hydroxypregnenolone values and 17 hydroxypregnenolone/17 hydroxyprogesterone and 17 hydroxypregnenolone/cortisol ratios after ACTH stimulation over the 95% confidence intervals of normal women. Basal dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate and testosterone levels were also measured in hirsute women. All samples were obtained during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. ACTH stimulated hormone values and ratios were diagnostic for 3 beta HDS deficit in 7.5% of hirsute women. Basal testosterone was over 80 ng/dl in 47.5% and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate over 3.9 micrograms/ml in 52.5% of these women. There was no correlation between dehydroepiandrosterone or testosterone values and ACTH stimulated hormone values. It is concluded that 3 beta HSD is frequent in hirsute women and that its diagnosis requires the determination of ACTH stimulated 17 hydroxypregnenolone values and 17 hydroxypregnenolone/17 hydroxyprogesterone ratio.