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This article examines the earliest Chinchorro intentionally made mummies of foetuses, babies and toddlers as skilfully made multimedia sculptures and not just immortalized bodies. Expanding upon palaeoclimatic and bioarchaeological studies, and drawing from examples of prehistoric and contemporary art, this article posits the Chinchorro creative and radical disruption of the natural process of mummification as a healing-artistic practice that was aimed at the physical preservation of the living and not necessarily the dead. The article thus advances a novel interpretation of Chinchorro mummies that decentres the deceased to evidence the potency and effectiveness of artistic practice and the limitations of frameworks of analysis that tend to divest pre-modern and non-Western societies from their aesthetic sensibilities and plastic aptitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our understanding of the limits of animal life is continually revised by scientific exploration of extreme environments. Here we report the discovery of mummified cadavers of leaf-eared mice, Phyllotis vaccarum , from the summits of three different Andean volcanoes at elevations 6,029–6,233 m above sea level in the Puna de Atacama in Chile and Argentina. Such extreme elevations were previously assumed to be completely uninhabitable by mammals. In combination with a live-captured specimen of the same species from the nearby summit of Volcán Llullaillaco (6,739 m) 1 , the summit mummies represent the highest altitude physical records of mammals in the world. We also report a chromosome-level genome assembly for P. vaccarum that, in combination with a whole-genome re-sequencing analysis and radiocarbon dating analysis, provides insights into the provenance and antiquity of the summit mice. Radiocarbon data indicate that the most ancient of the mummies are, at most, a few centuries old. Genomic polymorphism data revealed a high degree of continuity between the summit mice and conspecifics from lower elevations in the surrounding Altiplano. Genomic data also revealed equal numbers of males and females among the summit mice and evidence of close kinship between some individuals from the same summits. These findings bolster evidence for resident populations of Phyllotis at elevations >6,000 m and challenge assumptions about the environmental limits of vertebrate life and the physiological tolerances of small mammals. Storz et al. report the discovery of desiccated cadavers ('mummies') of Andean leaf-eared mice on the summits of several >6000 m Atacama volcanoes, elevations that were assumed to be uninhabitable by mammals. Genomic and radiocarbon data shed light on the origin of the mummies and provide a new understanding of the limits of vertebrate life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I follow the work of technicians organizing a collection of mummified materials in a university of Chile. In doing this, I translate some points of laboratory studies into another context: a deposit of archaeological collections. By following how technicians sort out the collections and exploring their roles in the making of knowledges tinged by hands-on experience, I unravel with a "Whiteheadean twist" how conservation practices are a matter of concern in archaeology. Insofar the mummies are preserved as "material heritages" and witnessed in public as "carriers of civilization," these "ambassadors of the past" are haunted in turn by their histories. But in the hands of technicians, I speculate that mummified materials become archeological objects imbued with a particular mode of existence. Through their work, they get to know the life-histories of mummies and in such stories, I focus on a sense of permanence, felt as an ideal purpose of conservation in archaeological collections. I analyze this with Whitehead's notion of civilization to underscore how conservation processes aim at attaining everlasting things. In this sense, I develop the point that civilizations function as lures for collecting and preserving things. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two pre-Hispanic mummies from the Andean coast, belonging to a corpus of 16 mummies from the San Miguel de Azapa (Arica, Chile), were radiocarbon dated and analyzed in order to replace them in their historical context and to study the conservation state of the hair fibers and the heavy metal presence. The radiocarbon dating placed both mummies in the Formative period (1700 years BC to 500 years AD). Global and elemental analyses were performed using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. These combined techniques enabled to prove the good global conservation state of the mummies' hair and to detect iron, lead, bromide and also arsenic in some cases, in significant amounts inside the hair fibers. Fourier transformed infra-red spectroscopy seemed to prove the good conservation state of the hair surface at a structural level that is why the conservation of hair proteins at a molecular level will be investigated by a proteomics approach in future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The consumption of plant-derived hallucinogenic substances through smoking and snuffing is a long-standing tradition in the south-central Andes. Chemical and archaeobotanical evidence point to the consumption of nicotine and tryptamine alkaloids in Northwestern Argentina and of tryptamine alkaloids in San Pedro de Atacama (SPA), in prehispanic times. In this paper, results are reported of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses aimed at identifying nicotine and tryptamine alkaloids in the hair of mummies from different cultural periods of SPA. Fifty-six samples were examined. While tryptamines were not found in any of the samples, nicotine was found in 35 samples, assigned to the Late Formative (1 of 1 sample from this period), Late Formative or Middle (1 of 2 samples from either of these periods), Middle (4 of 6 samples from this period) and Late Intermediate periods (8 of 12 samples from this period), or without assignment to period due to lack of contextual information (21 of 35 samples unassigned to a period). These results show a continuous consumption of nicotine from the Late Formative to the Late Intermediate periods of SPA (ca. 100 B.C.–1450 A.D.). No associations were found between presence of nicotine in the hair of mummies and presence of snuffing trays or of other snuffing paraphernalia in the corresponding tomb; furthermore, neither the diversity of the funerary context, measured in terms of the number of types of objects, nor the presence of gemstone necklaces differed between tombs with mummies with or without nicotine in their hair. Overall, these results suggest that consumption of nicotine was performed by members of the society at large, irrespective of their social and wealth status. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Three different lineages of head lice are known to parasitize humans. Clade A, which is currently worldwide in distribution, was previously demonstrated to be present in the Americas before the time of Columbus. The two other types of head lice are geographically restricted to America and Australia for clade B and to Africa and Asia for clade C. In this study, we tested two operculated nits from a 4,000-year-old Chilean mummy of Camarones for the presence of the partial Cytb mitochondrial gene (270 bp). Our finding shows that clade B head lice were present in America before the arrival of the European colonists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Distributional analysis of trace metals in biological tissue provides important archived toxicological and nutritional information. In this study, lead, strontium, zinc, and lithium concentrations were measured in dental tissue using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Teeth from two populations were sampled: ancient Chilean mummies (n=16) from Arica city as well as recently exfoliated deciduous teeth from contemporary Egyptian children (n=20) living in the Nile Delta. In this study, LA-ICP-MS was used to obtain high-resolution (50μm) elemental bioimages in dental tissue. The experiments consisted of fully quantitative Pb bioimages as well as semi-quantitative Zn and Li bioimages of one contemporary Nile Delta, Egypt tooth and one ancient tooth from the Andes. Lead levels in the Egyptian teeth averaged an order of magnitude greater than in the ancient Chilean teeth (14.93±32.28μg/g and 1.33±0.84μg/g, respectively), and had a much greater range of variation among teeth (1.02μg/g–68.38μg/g versus 0.36μg/g–2.35μg/g, respectively). Lithium, an element widely present in northern Chile, was found in higher concentrations in the Arica teeth than in the Kalama teeth, with the highest concentrations at two sites in Chilean burial grounds where water is tainted with natural lithium. Micrometer resolution images of quantified Pb, Zn, and Li concentrations from two teeth revealed higher concentrations of Pb and Zn in the pulp and surface enamel. Zn and Li are concentrated in the crown, potentially indicative of higher prenatal exposure. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We use scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) to analyse clay sediments used during the mummification process of Chinchorro mummies from northern Chile. The significance of this study is that no prior work has characterized the sediment used by the Chinchorro during mortuary preparation and this approach offers a necessary preliminary step towards identifying modern equivalents for the materials used by the Chinchorro. Understanding the unique characteristics of this material may also help understand why they are so well preserved and aid in the future curation of Chinchorro mummies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Lead exposure has received increased attention over the past few decades since it has been shown to have adverse effects on physical and intellectual development in humans. The use of biological tissues such as blood, teeth, hair, and bone for assessment of lead exposure has been previously demonstrated. While analysis of blood for trace metals provides information concerning recent exposure, hair offers insight into a period of several months, and is preferable since it is non-invasively collected and easily stored. The present study analyzed total of 49 ancient hair samples for lead (PbH) using LA-ICP-MS. Samples belonged to an ancient fisher hunter–gatherer culture called the “Chinchorro,” and who occupied regions of the Atacama Desert on the northern coast of Chile from approximately 5000–1500 B.C. and practiced the first-known form of artificial mummification. Several samples from a post-Chinchorro agricultural community (n=12) ca. 1000–1400 A.D. were also analyzed. A suite of hair standards was developed using contemporary hair from the same region and was subsequently used to make linear calibration functions for lead determination in single strands of hair using LA-ICP-MS. Three linear scans ranged from 500 to 1000μm were performed for each sample and signal intensities were normalized over 13C. The distribution of lead in the central medulla in a 100μm cross-section scan of hair strand demonstrated minimal exogenous contamination. Hair lead (PbH) concentrations ranged between 2.2μg/g and 12.8μg/g could be accurately quantified with these standards. Twenty one out of 49 samples (43%) showed PbH concentrations higher than the average value of 5μg/g for unexposed individuals (range 1.1–228.0μg/g). Median hair lead concentrations by burial sites and are shown in order of decreasing concentration: Morro (13.8μg/g)>Iquique (6.6μg/g)>Azapa (4.5μg/g)>Yungay (4.1μg/g)>Camarones (2.7μg/g). Most of the burial sites showed PbH concentrations greater than the normal value for unexposed individuals and outliers heavily influenced average concentrations. The results suggest that the Chinchorro and later agro-pastoral populations were not widely exposed to naturally elevated lead. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper explores to what extent arsenic poisoning affected pre-Columbian northern Chile populations living between Arica and Iquique cities. We hypothesize, the pre-Columbian inhabitants of this region, will show arseniasis according to modern geographic endemic levels. Continuous exposure to high levels of arsenic causes serious health problems. Today, in the Camarones valley, where many Chinchorro people lived, arsenic levels are 100 times above the 10 μg/L recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) we determined arsenic levels in a single strand of hair of 45 Arica mummies coming from ten sites (Morro 1, Morro 1/5, Yungay 372, Camarones 8, 9, 15D, and 17 and Azapa 140, Sermenia and Patillos), ranging from Chinchorro (ca. 5000–2000 years B.C.) to the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1400 years A.D.). Each hair was cleaned using distilled ionized water and placed on double sided mounting tape and ablated using a 266 nm Nd-YAG UV laser. Hair samples were also investigated for potential diagenesis. Results indicate minimal diagenesis. Arsenic hair (AsH) concentrations in the mummies ranged from <0.8 to 262.2 μg/g. We noted AsH variability within burial sites as well as regional variation. The Morro mummies have the highest mean group value (58 ± 103.8 mg/g). Contrary to hypothetical expectations, some Arica Chinchorro mummies have high values, perhaps indicating inter site mobility related to exogamous marriage and mummification rites. Our study shows that ancient people of northern Chile were significantly affected by arsenic poisoning throughout generations. Finally, this study calls attention to naturally occurring eco-toxic contaminants and its impact on ancient Andean people. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Chinchorros, a fishermen culture, who lived about 7000 years ago in the coastal region of the Atacama Desert in the northern outpost of present-day Chile, practiced an intricate system of mummification of their dead. The drinking water in this region is rich with arsenic, and the mummies were found in these arsenic endemic areas. Well preserved mummy hair samples provided a unique opportunity to explore the ancient arsenic exposure of the Chinchorros by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) using a single hair strand without any elaborate sample preparation. Forty-six hair samples from mummies found in five burial sites around the Atacama Desert, Chile, were used for this study. After cleaning, hair strands were placed on mounting tape and ablated using a Nd–YAG UV laser coupled to ICP-MS. A suite of contemporary human hair from the same region with known arsenic concentrations was used for calibration of LA-ICP-MS. Satisfactory linear calibration functions were obtained for arsenic in hair. The method detection limit was 0.8 µg/g and the sample throughput for this method is ∼10 samples per hour. It appears that mummies from the Morro (Arica), Iquique and Camarones had the elevated concentration of arsenic in hair (AsH>10 µg/g) in this sub-set of samples, where Morro had the broad distribution of As concentrations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In 1899, an extremely well-preserved mummy from the sixth century A.D. was found at the well-known Chilean mining site, Chuquicamata. The mummy was determined to be a young indigenous miner who died in 550 A.D. ± 40 years. In the sixth century, the known technology used to produce copper metal from minerals must have been the reduction of copper oxides using charcoal with blown air. Minerals were abundantly available at Chuquicamata in 1899, and native copper could also be found. Their reduction using charcoal combustion must have required temperatures greater than those necessary for the copper oxides, copper carbonates, and native copper. This study shows that the miner could have melted copper metal by using sodium nitrate, which is abundant in local soil, to create an exothermic reaction in which combustion reached a temperature of more than 1,200°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies the nonmetric subadult skeletal sexing trait using prehistoric known-sex mummies from Northern Chile. Skeletal age distribution for prehistoric mummies; Distribution of sexual traits of the ilium by age class; Distribution of the sexual traits of the mandible by age class; Comparison of reported accuracies for subadult sexing techniques.

Presents information from a study on the isolation of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA from spontaneously mummified human remains from northern Chile at sites dated from 2000 BC to AD 1400. Identification of Chagas' disease in mummified remains; Materials and methods; Results and discussion.

The mummification methods of an ancient maritime population on the northern coast of Chile are reviewed and the findings in an additional seven individuals are reported. Members of this cultural group, Chinchorro, practiced a selective, elaborate form of artificial mummification which persisted more than 4,000 years. Its complexity diminished with time, gradually disappearing after 2,000 B. C. One of the seven individuals herein reported is a rather poorly but spontaneously ('naturally') preserved body that may represent the oldest mummy reported to date-about 9,000 years old. Chemical reconstruction of their diet demonstrates that the principal component was derived from marine resources with only minor supplementation from terrestrial hunting as well as food gathering from river mouth vegetal sources, confirming the marine dependence of their adaptational strategy. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review of the bioarchaeological collections from the site Morro de Arica in northern Chile allowed the identification of two cases of human polydactyly. Both cases are from the Chinchorro culture, hunters, fishers, and gatherers with a maritime orientation who inhabited the coast of the Atacama Desert (9000-3400 BP). Additionally, the analyses of 75 rock art sites in the area, from the Formative to Late Intermediate Periods (3000-550 BP), allowed the identification of hands and feet with six digits. Given the bioarchaeological record of polydactyly, it is highly probable that the rock art images were based on real individuals with polydactyly. However, the Sr chemical signal in a juvenile with polydactyly is the same as the Sr chemical signal in the rest of the individuals buried in the same site, proving that all the individuals were born and lived on the coast. We discuss the idea that, although these anomalies could have been the result of genetic mutations, endogamy and exposition to ecotoxic environments could also be at play within the Chinchorro groups., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

The article reports that some Chinchorro mummies at the University of Tarapacá in Arica, Chile, began to degrade after surviving for thousands of years and discusses research indicating an increase in the region's humidity, possibly related to global climate change, is the likely cause.

We report a severe osteo-arthropathy in a body of a Chinchorro adult mole exhumed from the pre-Hispanic site of Playa Miller 8, located in the city of Arica, on the northern coast of Chile. The advanced state of joint disease shows that the individual was cared by his social group, to be able to survive. This care was perpetuated in the postmortem treatment, applying red color to the body. Particular self-care social dynamics of Chinchorro society are inferred.

A skin sample from a South-Andean mummy dating back from the XI(th) century was analyzed using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging using cluster primary ion beams (cluster-TOF-SIMS). For the first time on a mummy, skin dermis and epidermis could be chemically differentiated using mass spectrometry imaging. Differences in amino-acid composition between keratin and collagen, the two major proteins of skin tissue, could indeed be exploited. A surprising lipid composition of hypodermis was also revealed and seems to result from fatty acids damage by bacteria. Using cluster-TOF-SIMS imaging skills, traces of bio-mineralization could be identified at the micrometer scale, especially formation of calcium phosphate at the skin surface. Mineral deposits at the surface were characterized using both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and mass spectrometry imaging. The stratigraphy of such a sample was revealed for the first time using this technique. More precise molecular maps were also recorded at higher spatial resolution, below 1 µm. This was achieved using a non-bunched mode of the primary ion source, while keeping intact the mass resolution thanks to a delayed extraction of the secondary ions. Details from biological structure as can be seen on SEM images are observable on chemical maps at this sub-micrometer scale. Thus, this work illustrates the interesting possibilities of chemical imaging by cluster-TOF-SIMS concerning ancient biological tissues., (Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Background: The Camarones River Valley, located in the extreme north of Chile, is characterized by high environmental arsenic levels and an arid desert. It has been inhabited by humans for the past 7,000 years. Evidence exists for chronic arsenic poisoning in both prehispanic and present populations residing in the area. Chronic arsenic exposure causes multi-systemic problems and can induce congenital malformations, in particular neural tube development defects such as spina bifida., Aim: To study the prevalence of spina bifida among prehispanic mummies of the area., Material and Methods: One hundred and twenty prehistoric adult individuals were analyzed for evidence of spina bifda occulta of the sacrum in skeletal samples from the sites of Camarones 8, Camarones 9, Azapa 140 and Lluta 54, held in repository at the Museo Universidad de Tarapacá de Arica- San Miguel de Azapa. A diagnosis was considered positive when at least S1, S2 or S3 were affected. As controls, mummies of individuals that resided in Lluta and Azapa valley, with a low arsenic exposure, were analyzed., Results: The frequency of spina bifida occulta among samples from the Camarones coast and Lluta and Azapa Valley were 13.5 and 2.4% respectively., Conclusions: Considering these were contemporaneous samples, and are believed to have had no other differences in diet or other factors, the differential exposures to arsenic could have produced the observed differences in spina bifida frequencies.

Fundamental to the understanding of human history is the ability to make interpretations based on artefacts and other remains which are used to gather information about an ancient population. Sequestered in the organic matrices of these remains can be information, for example, concerning incidence of disease, genetic defects and diet. Stable isotopic compositions, especially those made on isolates of collagen from bones, have been used to help suggest principal dietary components. A significant problem in the use of collagen is its long-term stability, and the possibility of isotopic alteration during early diagenesis, or through contaminating condensation reactions. In this study, we suggest that a commonly overlooked material, human hair, may represent an ideal material to be used in addressing human diets of ancient civilizations. Through the analysis of the amino-acid composition of modern hair, as well as samples that were subjected to radiation (thus simulating ageing of the hair) and hair from humans that is up to 5200 years old, we have observed little in the way of chemical change. The principal amino acids observed in all of these samples are essentially identical in relative abundances and content. Dominating the compositions are serine, glutamic acid, threonine, glycine and leucine, respectively accounting for approximately 15%, 17%, 10%, 8% and 8% of the total hydrolysable amino acids. Even minor components (for example, alanine, valine, isoleucine) show similar constancy between the samples of different ages. This constancy clearly indicates minimal alteration of the amino-acid composition of the hair. Further, it would indicate that hair is well preserved and is amenable to isotopic analysis as a tool for distinguishing sources of nutrition. Based on this observation, we have isotopically characterized modern individuals for whom the diet has been documented. Both stable nitrogen and carbon isotope compositions were assessed, and together provide an indication of trophic status, and principal type (C3 or C4) of vegetation consumed. True vegans have nitrogen isotope compositions of about 7/1000 whereas humans consuming larger amounts of meat, eggs, or milk are more enriched in the heavy nitrogen isotope. We have also analysed large cross-sections of modern humans from North America and Europe to provide an indication of the variability seen in a population (the supermarket diet). There is a wide diversity in both carbon and nitrogen isotope values based at least partially on the levels of seafood, corn-fed beef and grains in the diets. Following analysis of the ancient hair, we have observed similar trends in certain ancient populations. For example, the Coptics of Egypt (1000 BP) and Chinchorro of Chile (5000-800 BP) have diets of similar diversity to those observed in the modern group but were isotopically influenced by local nutritional sources. In other ancient hair (Egyptian Late Middle Kingdom mummies, ca. 4000 BP), we have observed a much more uniform isotopic signature, indicating a more constant diet. We have also recognized a primary vegetarian component in the diet of the Neolithic Ice Man of the Oetztaler Alps (5200 BP). In certain cases, it appears that sulphur isotopes may help to further constrain dietary interpretations, owing to the good preservation and sulphur content of hair. It appears that analysis of the often-overlooked hair in archaeological sites may represent a significant new approach for understanding ancient human communities.

A well-preserved lymphocyte was found during the electron microscopic examination of the cerebral material recovered from a naturally preserved male mummy from northern Chile dating back over 500 years. The cytoplasmic structures were easily recognizable. This study represents one of the best ultrastructural analyses of mummified human peripheral blood elements.

A high rate of occurrence on dens evaginatus (DE) is reported in certain cultural groups in a Chilean population. Factors affecting the reported incidence of DE are discussed as are the clinical complications and treatment requirements related to this anomaly.

Mummies' demographic information of 10 prehispanic cultures that developed in the Arica region of Chile about 7000 years ago is analyzed and related to the present population structure. A paleoepidemiological analysis supports a relationship between cultural development and demographic structure. In chronological sequence, 4 demographic patterns can be distinguished: 1) archaic, a mature population with the highest life expectancy and the lowest dependence from prehispanic populations; 2) later archaic, a population in demographic explosion with its larger fraction under 15 years of age, elevated fertility rates and the greatest prehispanic dependence; 3) andean, a transition population with moderate fertility rates and dependence index; and 4) modern, an aging population with the highest proportion over 45 years of age and the highest life expectancy. The present demographic analysis may help to understand the relationships among disease, individual and culture from the perspective of genetic epidemiology.

Chewing of coca leaves was an integral part of many Andean pre-Columbian populations. Since the cocaine metabolite benzoylecognine is entrapped in hair of the user, this could serve as a convenient specimen for analysis. We tested the scalp hair of 8 Chilean mummies with dates ranging from 2,000 BC to 1,500 AD. This article reports that benzoylecognine is very stable and can be found in mummy hair.

The occurrence of mylohyoid groove bridging and jugular foramen bridging was determined in a population of adult Pre-Columbian Chileans. Two hundred forty-one crania (110 males, 131 females) were examined for jugular foramen bridging and 464 mandibles (252 males and 212 females) were observed for mylohyoid groove bridging. The overall incidence of jugular foramen bridging was 14.94%, with females showing a higher occurrence (18.32%) than males (10.91%); however, no statistical significance was found between the sexes. The right side showed a greater incidence than the left, but again no statistical difference was noted and the occurrence of this trait was found to be associated between the sides. This frequency of jugular foramen bridging is higher than that found in other studies and approaches that reported in North American Eskimo populations. In the case of mylohyoid groove bridging, the incidence was 4.09% with no difference found between the sexes. This frequency of occurrence is less than the values reported previously for the other American populations of Mongoloid ancestry including the Pre-Columbian Peruvian population. The importance of nonmetric skeletal traits for defining population groups and their usefulness as anthropological tools is discussed. It is concluded that hard tissue variations such as bony bridging may be reliable markers to aid in discretely identifying population groups, but their importance can be significantly enhanced by coupling as many traits as possible in future studies.

A study of female mummies representing seven pre-Columbian Andean populations of Arica, Chile, dating from 1300 B.C. (Azapa phase) to A.D. 1400 (Gentilar phase), disclosed that 18 (14% of the total) had died from childbirth-complicated death (CCD). The majority of these individuals appear to have died during puerperium, three of them without complete delivery. Higher rates of CCD were found in the earlier cultural phases (1300 B.C.-A.D. 600) after which the maternal mortality rate decreased. The precise causes of this mortality are not known, but septic conditions, acute diseases, and cultural practices relating to birth are implicated.

A case of an expansile, multilocular lesion in a condyle recovered in skeletal remains more than 700 years old is discussed. Gross, radiologic, and histologic studies were accomplished on the specimen. Although a definitive diagnosis could not be arrived at because of the age of the specimen, differential diagnoses are presented.

Two cases of gallbladder disease found in Chilean mummies are presented. The cholesterol gallstones in these cases produced in one individual a localized peritonitis and in the other a probable duct obstruction. No cases of this disease have been seen in Peruvian mummies while in Chile it seems quite common, suggesting some environmental factor in the etiology.

The results of ABO typing in Chilean mummies, a review of published South American paleoserological studies and a systematic discrepancy of admixture estimates based on ABO and Gm genes support the hypothesis that Andean pre-Columbian populations possessed the A (and perhaps the B) gene in small frequencies.

ABO blood groups of Peruvian and Chilean mummies were determined with the agglutination-inhibition method. In Peru all ABO blood groups were found in the period from 3000 B.C. to 1400 A.D.; from this period to 1650 only A and O were seen. In Chile no B or AB was noted either in pre-Columbian or Colonial mummies. This confirms the archeological concept that the Chilean Indian was culturally as well as genetically different from the Peruvian Indian. Further studies using other genetic markers are in order, as well as changing certain preconceived notions on blood groups of American Indians.

The quest for the origin and dispersion of Chagas' disease, the second most important vector-borne disease in Latin America, has epidemiological, immunological, and genetical implications. Conjectures based on accounts of chroniclers, reviews of the archaeological literature and the present distribution of triatomine bugs, the vectors of the disease, held that the origin of the adaptation of Triatoma infestans (a species of the subfamily Triatominae) to human dwellings occurred in prehistoric times. The autopsy of 35 mummies exhumed in the Chilean desert, dated between 470 B.C. and 600 A.D., revealed the presence of clinical manifestations of Chagas' disease and put earlier speculations on a factual basis.