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Myopia is a focal issue affecting the eye health of children and adolescents in China. Hyperopia reserve is the refractive state before the occurrence of myopia. As the result of dynamic matching between the axial length, cornea and lens, it is of great significance to the prevention and control of myopia. There has been a lack of the reference basis for children's eyeball development parameters and the influence of genetic factors, especially the changing law of the above-mentioned parameters in the process of children's "emmetropization". To promote the prevention and control of myopia in children and adolescents and to standardize population screening and clinical treatment, based on the survey data of refractive errors in children and adolescents from different regions, a consensus has been reached on the reference interval of hyperopia reserve, axial length and corneal curvature and related genetic factors of emmetropia at different ages among school-age children by the Public Health Ophthalmology Branch of the Chinese Preventive Medicine Association.

In order to meet the demands of myopia prevention, as well as the increasing needs of measurement for refractive and cataract operations in China, a new axial length (AL) measurement system combining an improved Twyman-Green interferometer with digital signal processing has been established. The ALs of 33 eyes of different optical refractive subjects (-8.50 ~ 0.50 D) were measured with the New AL and intraocular lens (IOL) master. The repeatability of measurements with the New AL was assessed using coefficient of variation (CoV) and intra-group correlation coefficient (ICC). Comparison, correlation, linear regression and agreement of AL between devices were analyzed. There was good repeatability (CoV = 0.0617%, ICC = 0.9999) with the New AL and great agreement has been obtained with both devices. These show that the New AL is capable of providing precise AL values over the normal AL range compared to the IOL master, and indicate that the New AL developed can be used for routine clinical AL measurements., (© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Clinical Relevance: Large-scale data on the association between body stature with biometry parameters and refraction in young adults facilitates an understanding of myopia development. Taller persons have eyes with more negative refractions, longer axial lengths, deeper anterior chambers, flatter corneas, and higher axial length-corneal radius ratio., Background: To determine the relationship between body stature with ocular biometry and refraction in young adults., Methods: This was a cross-sectional university-based study of 16- to 26-year-old students in China. Cycloplegic refraction and corneal curvature were measured using an autorefractor. Ocular parameters, including axial length, anterior chamber depth and lens thickness, were measured using a Lenstar LS900. Data on height and weight were acquired from an annual standardised physical examination and body mass index was calculated., Results: Of 7,971 participants examined in the school clinics, 5,657 (71.0 per cent) were available in the analysis. After adjusting for age, gender, parental myopia, time outdoors, near work and weight, each centimetre of height increase was associated with more negative refraction of -0.023-D, a 0.032-mm increase in axial length, a 0.003-mm increase in anterior chamber depth, a 0.008-mm increase in corneal curvature, and a 0.001 increase in axial length-corneal radius ratio. With regard to weight, a 1-kg heavier person was more likely to have less negative refraction of 0.011-D, a 0.001-mm increase in anterior chamber depth and a 0.002-mm increase in corneal curvature. A similar pattern of significant associations was also found in body mass index., Conclusion: Taller, young adults tended to have longer eyes, deeper anterior chambers, flatter corneas, higher axial length-corneal radius ratio, and more negative refraction, adjusted for potential confounders. In contrast, heavier and higher body mass index persons are more hyperopic. The differences in stature may partially explain the variation in refraction and ocular biometric parameters.

Background: Early Cambrian Lagerstätten from China have greatly enriched our perspective on the early evolution of animals, particularly arthropods. However, recent studies have shown that many of these early fossil arthropods were more derived than previously thought, casting uncertainty on the ancestral euarthropod body plan. In addition, evidence from fossilized neural tissues conflicts with external morphology, in particular regarding the homology of the frontalmost appendage., Results: Here we redescribe the multisegmented megacheirans Fortiforceps and Jianfengia and describe Sklerolibyon maomima gen. et sp. nov., which we place in Jianfengiidae, fam. nov. (in Megacheira, emended). We find that jianfengiids show high morphological diversity among megacheirans, both in trunk ornamentation and head anatomy, which encompasses from 2 to 4 post-frontal appendage pairs. These taxa are also characterized by elongate podomeres likely forming seven-segmented endopods, which were misinterpreted in their original descriptions. Plesiomorphic traits also clarify their connection with more ancestral taxa. The structure and position of the "great appendages" relative to likely sensory antero-medial protrusions, as well as the presence of optic peduncles and sclerites, point to an overall homology with the anterior head of radiodontans. This is confirmed by our Bayesian phylogeny, which places jianfengiids as the basalmost euarthropods, paraphyletic with other megacheirans, and in contiguity with isoxyids and radiodontans., Conclusions: Sklerolibyon and other jianfengiids expand the disparity of megacheirans and suggest that the common euarthropod ancestor possessed a remarkable phenotypic variability associated with the externalized cephalon, as well as endopods that were already heptopodomerous, which differs from previous hypotheses and observations. These animals also demonstrate that the frontalmost pair of arthrodized appendage is homologous between radiodontans and megacheirans, refuting the claim that the radiodontan frontal appendages evolved into the euarthropod labrum, and questioning its protocerebral identity. This evidence based on external anatomy now constitutes a solid benchmark upon which we should address issues of homology, with the help of carefully examined palaeoneurological data.

The end-Permian mass extinction (EPME) led to reorganization of marine predatory communities, through introduction of air-breathing top predators, such as marine reptiles. We report two new specimens of one such marine reptile, Eretmorhipis carrolldongi, from the Lower Triassic of Hubei, China, revealing superficial convergence with the modern duckbilled platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), a monotreme mammal. Apparent similarities include exceptionally small eyes relative to the body, snout ending with crura with a large internasal space, housing a bone reminiscent of os paradoxum, a mysterious bone of platypus, and external grooves along the crura. The specimens also have a rigid body with triangular bony blades protruding from the back. The small eyes likely played reduced roles during foraging in this animal, as with extant amniotes (group containing mammals and reptiles) with similarly small eyes. Mechanoreceptors on the bill of the animal were probably used for prey detection instead. The specimens represent the oldest record of amniotes with extremely reduced visual capacity, utilizing non-visual cues for prey detection. The discovery reveals that the ecological diversity of marine predators was already high in the late Early Triassic, and challenges the traditional view that the ecological diversification of marine reptiles was delayed following the EPME.

Objectives: To explore the correlation between the imaging parameters of skull and the external features of eyes., Methods: Positive images of the head face and the frontal and lateral X-ray films were obtained from 101 cases of adult males of the Han nationality aged from 20 to 40 years old in Northeast China. The face width （ x ₁）, upper face width （ x ₂）, biorbital width （ x ₃）, all facial height （ x ₄）, upper facial height （ x ₅）, maximum breadth of skull （ x ₆）, minimum breadth of frontal bone （ x ₇）, orbital widthⅡ（ x ₈）, anterior interorbital breadth （ x ₉）, maximum height of skull （ x ₁₀）, minimum width of nasal bone （ x ₁₁） and orbital height （ x ₁₂） were measured and the data were statistically analysed., Results: Through the linear regression analysis, the regression equations of the presumed inboard canthi （ y ₁） and outboard canthi distances （ y ₂） were established, respectively, which were y ₁=0.025 x ₂+0.291 x ₃-0.011 x ₇+0.041 x₁₀-0.525（ R =0.613, SEE =0.222 cm） and y ₂=1.703-0.08 x ₂+0.573 x ₃-0.142 x ₄+0.421 x ₅+0.096 x ₇-0.256 x ₈+0.149 x ₉+0.071 x ₁₀（ R =0.745, SEE =0.341 cm）. The back-substitution check showed that the accuracy rate of two equations at ±1 SEE were 75.2% and 80.2%, respectively., Conclusions: The established regression equations of external features of eyes have high estimation accuracy, which can be used to the practical work of facial reconstruction., Competing Interests: The authors of this article and the planning committee members and staff have no relevant financial relationships with commercial interests to disclose., (Copyright© by the Editorial Department of Journal of Forensic Medicine)

We aimed to describe the ethnic variations in ocular dimensions among three ethnic groups with similar genetic ancestry from mainland of China. We included 2119 ethnic Bai, 2202 ethnic Yi and 2183 ethnic Han adults aged 50 years or older in the study. Ocular dimensions including axial length (AL), anterior chamber depth (ACD), vitreous chamber depth (VCD) and lens thickness (LT) were measured using A-scan ultrasonography. Bai Chinese had longer ALs (P < 0.001), deeper ACDs (P < 0.001) but shallower VCDs (P < 0.001) compared with the other two ethnic groups. There were no ethnic variations in LTs. Diabetes was associated with shallower ACDs and this association was stronger in Bai Chinese compared with Yi or Han Chinese (P for interaction = 0.02). Thicker lenses were associated with younger age (P = 0.04), male gender (P < 0.001), smoking history (P = 0.01), alcohol intake (P = 0.03), the presence of cataract (P < 0.001), and the presence of diabetes (P < 0.001). There were significant differences in ocular dimensions among different ethnic groups with small differences in genetics but large variations in cultures and lifestyles.

Background: The aim was to evaluate the effect of ocular topography on soft contact lens fit in Chinese and Caucasians., Method: This study evaluated 547 subjects from two ethnic groups, Caucasian (n = 250) and Chinese (n = 297), at investigational sites in three locations: Wenzhou, China, Melbourne, Australia and Jacksonville, USA. Subjects underwent measurement of a range of ocular topographic variables using identical equipment and protocols, including: apical corneal radius (CR), corneal shape factor (CSF) in the two principal meridians, horizontal visible iris diameter (HVID), vertical palpebral aperture (PA), upper lid angle (ULA) and inter-canthal angle (ICA). Subjects were fitted with a spherical lens in two base curves (BCs) (1·Day ACUVUE, 8.50, 9.00 mm) and a toric soft lens (Accelerated Stabilization Design)., Results: The steeper base curve (8.50 mm) spherical lenses gave an acceptable overall lens fit with 98 per cent or more of subjects in both groups, while the flatter lens (9.00 mm) was acceptable in a significantly higher proportion of the Chinese compared to Caucasian group (96 versus 82 per cent, p < 0.0001) . The main difference in fit between groups was for centration; there was significantly less decentration with the Chinese group (8.50 BC: 39 versus 72 per cent, p < 0.0001; 9.0 BC: 63 versus. 85 per cent, p = 0.02). The 8.5 mm base curve showed good centration (none or slight decentration) for 97 per cent of Caucasian eyes and 96 per cent of Chinese eyes. With both groups, there were some significant correlations between lens fit and ocular topographic variables, most notable between upper lid angle and toric lens orientation with the Chinese subjects. Regression analysis also showed key predictive values relating to lens fit., Conclusions: Detailed ocular measurements suggest anatomical differences between Chinese and Caucasian populations that should be considered in soft lens design. The spherical and toric lenses tested in this study fitted a large proportion of both Chinese and Caucasian eyes and are robust to the ocular differences noted., (© 2016 Optometry Australia.)

Purpose: To develop three-surface paraxial schematic eyes with different ages and sexes based on data for 7- and 14-year-old Chinese children from the Anyang Childhood Eye Study., Methods: Six sets of paraxial schematic eyes, including 7-year-old eyes, 7-year-old male eyes, 7-year-old female eyes, 14-year-old eyes, 14-year-old male eyes, and 14-year-old female eyes, were developed. Both refraction-dependent and emmetropic eye models were developed, with the former using linear dependence of ocular parameters on refraction., Results: A total of 2059 grade 1 children (boys 58%) and 1536 grade 8 children (boys 49%) were included, with mean age of 7.1 ± 0.4 and 13.7 ± 0.5 years, respectively. Changes in these schematic eyes with aging are increased anterior chamber depth, decreased lens thickness, increased vitreous chamber depth, increased axial length, and decreased lens equivalent power. Male schematic eyes have deeper anterior chamber depth, longer vitreous chamber depth, longer axial length, and lower lens equivalent power than female schematic eyes. Changes in the schematic eyes with positive increase in refraction are decreased anterior chamber depth, increased lens thickness, decreased vitreous chamber depth, decreased axial length, increased corneal radius of curvature, and increased lens power. In general, the emmetropic schematic eyes have biometric parameters similar to those arising from regression fits for the refraction-dependent schematic eyes., Conclusions: The paraxial schematic eyes of Chinese children may be useful for myopia research and for facilitating comparison with other children with the same or different racial backgrounds and living in different places.

Purpose: To determine the prevalence of myopia and ocular biometry in population-based samples of ethnic Yi and Han people living in an inland rural community in China., Methods: A random cluster sampling strategy was used to select ethnic Han and Yi adults aged 50 years or older living in Yunnan. Refractive error was determined by subjective refraction and ocular biometric parameters, including axial length (AL), anterior chamber depth (ACD), vitreous chamber depth (VCD), and lens thickness (LT), which were measured using an Echoscan., Results: Adults of Yi ethnicity had lower prevalence of myopia (10.3% vs. 8.1%; P = 0.02) and high myopia (2.3% vs. 1.6%; P = 0.10) than their counterparts of Han ethnicity. The prevalence of myopia increased with age (P for trend < 0.05), whereas the mean AL did not differ significantly among age groups in both ethnic groups (both P for trend > 0.05). In multivariate analysis, time spent outdoors was associated with myopia (P = 0.003) and AL (P < 0.001) but not high myopia (P = 0.33). No interaction effect was detected between ethnicity and other risk factors on myopia (all P > 0.05). Adjustment for lens nuclear opacity score reduced the excess prevalence of myopia in Han ethnicity by 37.5%., Conclusions: There was little evidence showing that ethnic disparities existed in the prevalence and risk factors between the major and minor ethnic groups living in the same communities in rural China. The "cohort effect" on myopia observed in many other populations was not seen in this study.

Background: To measure the anterior and posterior ocular biometric characteristics concurrently and to determine the relationship between the iris and choroid in healthy Chinese subjects., Methods: A total of 148 subjects (270 eyes) were enrolled in this cross-section study. The anterior and posterior ocular biometric characteristics were measured simultaneously by anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) and swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT)., Results: Compared with male eyes, female eyes had narrower anterior biometric parameters that presented with smaller anterior segment parameters [including anterior chamber depth (ACD), width (ACW), area (ACA), and volume (ACV); (all p<0.001)], narrower anterior chamber angle parameters [including angle opening distance (AOD750), trabecular-iris space area (TISA750), and angle recess area (ARA); (all p<0.001)], higher iris curvature (ICURV) (p = 0.003), and larger lens vaults (LV) (p = 0.019). These anterior ocular biometric parameters were correlated with increasing age (p<0.01). Iris thickness (IT750) and iris area (IAREA) were associated with age, ACW, and pupil diameter (all p<0.05), while choroidal thickness (CT) was associated with age, gender, and axial length (all p<0.05). Univariate regression analysis showed that greater CT was significantly associated with smaller IAREA (p = 0.026)., Conclusion: Compared with male eyes, female eyes had narrower anterior biometric parameters that correlated with increasing age, which would be helpful in explaining the higher prevalence of angle closure rates in the female gender and in aging people. Increased CT might be associated with smaller iris area; however, this possibility needs to be investigated in future studies before this conclusion is made.

Purpose: To investigate the distribution of the (CCR) and its associated factors in children., Methods: Using a random cluster sampling method, the school-based, cross-sectional Shandong Children Eye Study included children aged 4 to 18 years from the rural county of Guanxian and the city of Weihai in the province of Shandong in East China. CCR was measured by ocular biometry., Results: CCR measurements were available for 5913 (92.9%) out of 6364 eligible children. Mean age was 10.0±3.3 years, and mean CCR was 7.84±0.27 mm (range: 6.98 to 9.35 mm). In multivariate linear regression analysis, longer CCR (i.e. flatter cornea) was significantly associated with the systemic parameters of male sex (P<0001; standardized regression coefficient beta: -0.08; regression coefficient B: -0.04; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): -0.05, -0.03), younger age (P<0.001; beta: -0.37; B: -0.03; 95%CI: -0.04, -0.03), taller body height (P = 0.002; beta: 0.06; B: 0.001; 95%CI: 0.000, 0.001), lower level of education of the father (P = 0.001; beta: -0.04; B: -0.01; 95%CI: -0.02, -0.01) and maternal myopia (P<0.001; beta: -0.07; B: -0.04; 95%CI: -0.06, -0.03), and with the ocular parameters of longer ocular axial length (P<0.001; beta: 0.59; B: 0.13; 95%CI: 0.12, 0.14), larger horizontal corneal diameter (P<0.001; beta: 0.19; B: 0.13; 95%CI: 0.11, 0.14), and smaller amount of cylindrical refractive error (P = 0.001; beta: -0.09; B: -0.05; 95%CI: -0.06, -0.04)., Conclusions: Longer CCR (i.e., flatter corneas) (mean:7.84±0.27 mm) was correlated with male sex, younger age, taller body height, lower paternal educational level, maternal myopia, longer axial length, larger corneas (i.e., longer horizontal corneal diameter), and smaller amount of cylindrical refractive error. These findings may be of interest for elucidation of the process of emmetropization and myopization and for corneal refractive surgery.

Sinocyclocheilus brevifinus sp. nov. is described from a subterranean river at Maohedong Village, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Southern China. The new species can be distinguished from all congeners in having functional eyes, last simple dorsal fin ray soft and without serrations along posterior margin, eye diameter small (3.4-5.0 %SL), tip of depressed dorsal fin not reaching vertical at anal fin origin, tip of depressed pelvic fin far from anus, maxillary barbel not reaching anterior edge of operculum, rostral barbel not reaching posterior edge of operculum, scales of lateral line row significantly larger than those of scale rows immediately above and below lateral line, and flanks with distinct black spots and blotches.

Xiurenbagrus dorsalis, a new cave-dwelling amblycipitid catfish species, is described based on one specimen collected from the Pearl River drainage in Guangxi, China. The new species can be distinguished from congeners in having a unique combination of features, including the absence of eyes, long barbels, dorsal-fin origin posterior to vertical line at tip of pectoral fins and an adipose fin confluent with caudal fin. This is the first record of a blind catfish in China.

Background: Goldfish, Carassius auratus, have experienced strong anthropogenic selection during their evolutionary history, generating a tremendous extent of morphological variation relative to that in native Carassius. To locate the geographic origin of goldfish, we analyzed nucleotide sequences from part of the control region (CR) and the entire cytochrome b (Cytb) mitochondrial DNA genes for 234 goldfish and a large series of native specimens. Four important morphological characteristics used in goldfish taxonomy-body shape, dorsal fin, eye shape, and tailfin-were selected for hypothesis-testing to identify those that better correspond to evolutionary history., Principal Finding: Haplotypes of goldfish rooted in two sublineages (C5 and C6), which contained the haplotypes of native C. a. auratus from southern China. Values of F(ST) and N(m) revealed a close relationship between goldfish and native C. a. auratus from the lower Yangtze River. An extraordinary, stepwise loss of genetic diversity was detected from native fish to goldfish and from Grass-goldfish relative to other breeds. Significantly negative results for the tests of Tajima's D and Fu and Li's D* and F* were identified in goldfish, including the Grass breed. The results identified eye-shape as being the least informative character for grouping goldfish with respect to their evolutionary history. Fisher's exact test identified matrilineal constraints on domestication., Conclusions: Chinese goldfish have a matrilineal origin from native southern Chinese C. a. auratus, especially the lineages from the lower Yangtze River. Anthropogenic selection of the native Carassius eliminated aesthetically unappealing goldfish and this action appeared to be responsible for the stepwise decrease in genetic diversity of domesticated goldfish, a process similar to that reported for the domestication of pigs, rice, and maize. The three-breed taxonomy--Grass-goldfish, Egg-goldfish, and Wen-goldfish--better reflected the history of domestication.

Exhibiting Orsten-type preservation, specimens of the phosphatocopine Dabashanella sp. from the Lower Cambrian Stage 3 (about 520 million years ago) of southern China possess a single-fold shield and a set of appendages of crustacean design. More significantly, a pair of stalked eyes-the earliest known visual structure in this group-is attached to an ocular segment analogous to the anterior sclerite of various stem-group arthropods. Accordingly, a unique visual system must have been present among some, if not all, early phosphatocopines. In comparison with the ground pattern of later members of this group, the new phosphatocopine, which with its unique head segmentation and limb design is unlikely to be embraced within the previously proposed Labrophora, demonstrates a remarkable modification and innovation in the appendages and visual system with time. Thus, this finding provides new data for the evaluation of the early evolutionary development and phylogenetics of the Crustacea and other related euarthropods., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To investigate the normative data of ocular axial length and its associations in Chinese., Method: The population-based Beijing Eye Study 2011 is a cross-sectional study performed in Greater Beijing. The study included 3468 individuals (1963 (56.6%) women) with a mean age of 64.6±9.8 years (range: 50-93 years). A detailed ophthalmic and medical examination was performed. Axial length was measured by optical low-coherence reflectometry., Results: Axial length measurements were available for 3159 (91.1%) study participants. Mean axial length was 23.25±1.14 mm (range: 18.96-30.88 mm). In multivariate analysis, axial length was significantly associated with the systemic parameters of higher age (P<0.001), higher body height (P = 0.003), higher level of education (P<0.001) and urban region of habitation (P<0.001), and with the ocular parameters of thicker central cornea (P = 0.001), higher corneal curvature radius (P<0.001), deeper anterior chamber (P<0.001), thicker lens (P<0.001), more myopic refractive error (P<0.001), larger pupil diameter (P = 0.018), and higher best corrected visual acuity (P<0.001). It was additionally and negatively associated with the lens vault (P<0.001). In highly myopic eyes, axial length was significantly associated with lower level of education (P = 0.008), more myopic refractive error (P<0.001), and lower best corrected visual acuity (P = 0.034)., Conclusions: Mean ocular axial length in the older adult population of Greater Beijing (23.25±1.14 mm) was similar to the value measured in other urban populations and was higher than in a rural Central Indian population. The association between axial length and older age may potentially be associated with a survival artifact. The association between axial length and body height agrees with the general association between anthropomorphic measures and eye globe size. The association with the level of education and urban region of habitation confirms with previous studies. In contrast in highly myopic eyes, axial length was negatively associated with educational level and best corrected visual acuity.

New material of the lobopodian Luolishania longicruris has been recovered from the Lower Cambrian Chengjiang Lagerstätte, southwest China. The specimens throw new light on several morphological features of the species, including the paired antenniform outgrowths, eyes, head shield, setae and other cuticular projections, as well as the differentiated sclerites, appendages, claws, and lobopod interspaces. L. longicruris shows well developed tagmosis: a distinct head and a trunk divided into two sections. The new data allow a revised comparison with other lobopodians. Miraluolishania haikouensis Liu et al., 2004 is considered to be a junior synonym of L. longicruris Hou and Chen, 1989. Evidence from gut filling and specialized morphological characters indicates that L. longicruris may have had a filter feeding lifestyle. A new cladistic analysis suggests that fossil lobopodians are paraphyletic or even polyphyletic and L. longicruris may be an important representative of the stem lineage leading to arthropods.

Purpose: To measure laminar and peripapillary scleral architecture in normal and glaucomatous Chinese eyes with normal and those with elongated axial length., Methods: The histomorphometric investigation included a normal group (nonaxially elongated eyes) of 40 human globes (40 patients; mean age, 41.3 +/- 13.4 years; range,15-68) enucleated because of malignant choroidal melanoma, a glaucomatous group (non-axially elongated eyes) of 55 eyes (55 patients; age, 43.3 +/- 20.3 years; range, 12-88) enucleated because of painful secondary angle-closure glaucoma, and a group of 26 glaucomatous globes (glaucomatous elongated axial length group; 26 patients; age, 29.0 +/- 14.4 years; range, 12-60) with an axial length > 27.5 mm. Anterior-posterior histologic sections were morphometrically evaluated., Results: The lamina cribrosa was significantly (P < 0.001) thicker in the normal group than in the glaucomatous group, in which it was significantly (P < 0.001) thicker than in the glaucomatous elongated-length group. Lamina cribrosa thickness decreased significantly with increasing axial length (P < 0.001) and presence of glaucoma (P < 0.001). Peripapillary scleral thickness close to the optic nerve scleral canal and just outside of the optic nerve meninges decreased significantly with increasing axial length (P = 0.04 and P = 0.02, respectively). Peripapillary scleral thickness did not vary significantly between the glaucomatous group and the normal group. The distance between the intraocular space and cerebrospinal fluid space was (P < 0.001) shorter in the two glaucomatous groups than in the normal group., Conclusions: Lamina cribrosa thickness and peripapillary sclera thickness decreased significantly with axial length, in addition to a glaucoma-related thinning of the lamina cribrosa. In non-axially elongated eyes, the peripapillary sclera thickness did not vary significantly between glaucomatous eyes and normal eyes.

Objective: To investigate the normal value of six parameters of head and eye in Chinese children, including interorbit distance (IOD), interpupillary distance (IPD), superior otobasion-ectocochion distance (obs-ec), intersuperior otobasion distance (obs-obs), exophthalmos and nasal basis angle, for stipulating the sizes of children spectacle frames., Methods: The value of these six parameters in 10 171 children ages 5 to 17 years old were measured with caliper in four cities and the results were analyzed., Results: The IOD, IPD, obs-ec and obs-obs were increased and positively correlated with the age. The differences of these parameters among different ages were statistically significant (F = 0.97, P < 0.01), especially in IPD before 15, IOD before 13, obs-ec and obs-obs before 12 and exophthalmos before 12 years old. The fastest growth age in IPD, IOD, exophthalmos, obs-ec and obs-obs was 10, 11, 5, 7 and 11 years old, respectively. The growth period of IPD, IOD, exophthalmos, obs-ec and obs-obs was 5 - 15, 5 - 13, 5 - 8, 5 - 12 and 5 - 15 years old. The difference of these six parameters among children in 4 cities were statistically significant (t = 3.1, P < 0.01)., Conclusions: The most active growth period of IPD, IOD, obs-obs, obs-ec and exophthalmos lies between 5-15 years old in Chinese children 5-17 years old. Although the differences of these six parameters between male and female and among children in four cities are statistically significant, practically they are not important for stipulating the sizes of children's spectacle frames.

Objectives: To provide a database of the canthal measurements of Chinese infants born in Hong Kong., Design: Prospective cross-sectional study., Setting and Sample Population: A total of 2,371 healthy singleton, born consecutively at the Prince of Wales Hospital and the Union Hospital from June 1998 to June 2000, were included in the study. The range of gestation was 33-42 weeks., Measurements and Results: Canthal parameters were measured and included the outer canthal distance (OCD), intercanthal distance (ICD) and palpebral fissure length (PFL). The data generally show higher values for males in the parameters measured. The measurements were also compared with data published overseas. PFL and OCD were significantly larger in Hong Kong Chinese newborn babies, whereas ICD was smaller., Conclusion: This study establishes the first set of gestational age-specific standard of such craniofacial parameters for Chinese newborn babies, potentially enabling early syndromal diagnosis. There are significant inter-racial differences in these canthal parameters.

Aim: To relate indices of education, occupation, and socioeconomic status to ocular dimensions and refraction in an adult population., Methods: A population based, cross sectional survey of adult Chinese aged 40-81 years residing in the Tanjong Pagar district in Singapore. Ocular dimensions, including axial length, anterior chamber depth, lens thickness, and vitreous chamber depth, were measured using an A-mode ultrasound device. Corneal radius of curvature and refraction were determined with an autorefractor, with refraction further refined subjectively, and lens nuclear opacity was graded clinically using the modified Lens Opacity Classification System III score. Data on education, occupation, income, and housing type were obtained from a standardised interview., Results: Biometric data were available on 951 phakic subjects. After controlling for age, sex, occupation, income and housing type, higher education was associated with longer axial lengths (0.60 mm; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.34, 0.85, for every 10 years of education), longer vitreous chambers (0.53 mm; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.77), and more myopic refractions (-1.50 dioptres, 95% CI: -2.08, -0.92). Adjustment for axial length attenuated the refractive association of education (-0.68 dioptre, 95% CI: -1.14, -0.21). Similarly, near work related occupations (managers, professionals, and office workers) and higher income were independently associated with longer axial lengths, longer vitreous chambers, and more myopic refractions, and adjustment for axial length attenuated the refractive associations., Conclusions: Adults with greater education, near work related occupations, and higher income are more likely to have longer axial lengths and vitreous chambers, and more myopic refractions. The refractive associations of education, occupation, and income are largely explained by variations in axial length.

Purpose: To examine the association between the anthropometric measurements of height, weight, body mass index (BMI) and refraction and other ocular parameters in Singapore Chinese children., Methods: In a cross-sectional study of 1449 Chinese schoolchildren, aged 7 to 9 years, from three Singapore schools, height and weight were measured according to standard protocol, and BMI was calculated. Refractive error and corneal curvature measures were determined by autorefraction in eyes under cycloplegia. Axial length, vitreous chamber depth, lens thickness, and anterior chamber depth were measured using A-scan biometry ultrasonography., Results: In comparison with the children with height in the first quartile for a given age and gender, the eyeball length in children in the fourth quartile was 0.46 mm longer, the vitreous chamber depth 0.46 mm deeper, the corneal radius of curvature 0.10 mm greater (i.e., flatter), refraction more negative by 0.47 D (-0.76 D versus -0.29 D), and axial length-to-corneal curvature radius (AL-CR) ratio higher, after analyses controlling for age, gender, parental myopia, reading, school, and weight. The associations of height with refractive error and AL-CR ratio were significant in girls but not in boys. Heavier and more obese children had refractions that were more hyperopic (P = 0.01, P = 0.08), after analyses controlling for age, gender, parental myopia, reading, and school (height was also controlled for if weight was evaluated). This association was present in boys but not in girls., Conclusions: Controlling for age, gender, parental myopia, reading, school, and weight showed that taller Singapore Chinese children had eyes with longer axial lengths, deeper vitreous chambers, flatter corneas, and refractions that tended toward myopia. In multivariate analysis, eyes in children who were heavier or who had a higher BMI tended to have refractions that were more hyperopic, and eyes in heavier children had shorter vitreous chambers. Differences between the present results and a recent report in Singapore adults suggest either a cohort effect or a potential influence of systemic endocrine or metabolic factors during childhood on refractive development.

Purpose: To describe the association of ocular dimensions and refraction with adult stature., Methods: This was a population-based cross-sectional survey of adult Chinese aged 40 to 81 years residing in the Tanjong Pagar district in SINGAPORE: As part of the examination, ocular dimensions, including axial length, anterior chamber depth, lens thickness, and vitreous chamber depth, were measured using an A-mode ultrasound device. Corneal radius and refraction were determined with an autorefractor, with refraction further refined subjectively. Height (in meters) and weight (in kilograms) were measured using a standardized protocol, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight divided by the square of the height (kilograms per square meter)., Results: Data on ocular biometry, refraction, height, and weight were available on 951 (55.4%) participants with phakic eyes. After controlling for age, sex, education, occupation, housing type, income, and weight, it was found that taller persons were more likely to have longer axial lengths (+0.23 mm longer axial length, for every 0.10 m difference in height), deeper anterior chambers (+0.07 mm), thinner lenses (-0.09 mm), longer vitreous chambers (+0.26 mm), and flatter corneas (+0.09 mm longer corneal radius), although refractions were similar. In contrast, heavier persons tended to have more hyperopic refractions (+0.22 D for every 10 kg difference in weight, +0.56 D for every 10 kg/m(2) difference in BMI) but similar ocular dimensions., Conclusions: Adult height is independently related to ocular dimensions, but does not appear to influence refraction. Thus, although taller persons are more likely to have longer globes, they also tend to have deeper anterior chambers, thinner lenses, and flatter corneas. Conversely, weight is independently related to refraction, although the exact biometric component responsible for this association is not apparent.

The discovery of two Early Devonian osteichthyan (bony fish) fossils has challenged established ideas about the origin of osteichthyans and their divergence into actinopterygians (teleosts and their relatives) and sarcopterygians (tetrapods, coelacanths, lungfishes and related groups). Psarolepis from China and an unnamed braincase from Australia combine derived sarcopterygian and actinopterygian characters with primitive features previously restricted to non-osteichthyans, suggesting that early osteichthyan evolution may have involved substantial parallellism between sarcopterygians and actinopterygians. But interpretation of these fossils has been hampered by poor phylogenetic resolution. Here we describe a basal sarcopterygian fish, Achoania gen, et sp. nov., that fills the morphological gap between Psarolepis and higher sarcoptergyians. We also report the presence of eyestalk attachments in both Achoania and Psarolepis, showing that this supposedly non-osteichthyan feature occurs in basal sarcopterygians as well as the actinoptergyian-like Australian braincase.

Purpose: Primary angle-closure glaucoma (PACG) is more prevalent among Chinese than whites. The authors tested the hypothesis that Chinese have shallower anterior chambers than do whites, a factor that may be related to PACG prevalence., Methods: The authors compared anterior chamber depth, axial length, radius of corneal curvature, and refractive error among 531 Chinese, 170 whites, and 188 blacks older than 40 years of age using the same model of instruments and identical technique., Results: Mean anterior chamber depth and axial length did not differ significantly for the three groups. Whites had a significantly higher prevalence of hyperopia > 2 diopters than did Chinese. Radius of corneal curvature was significantly smaller among Chinese than whites or blacks., Conclusions: These results suggest that Chinese do not differ on a population basis from other ethnic groups in many of the biometric risk factors known to be of importance for PACG. It will be necessary to identify other ocular biometric parameters to explain the excess burden of PACG among Chinese, which may improve the effectiveness of screening for this disease in all populations.

In this study, eighteen indexes of facial proportions were established in 72 youngsters with beautiful faces of Sichuan descent, who haven't been done operation on and orthodontics in our country. The results indicated that there were not most sexual difference of the facial proportions between male and female in most indexes, and also were not national difference of facial proportions between Chinese and Japanese. It also showed some progresses in clinical practice.

We measured the eye position and head dimensions of Chinese children in Hong Kong. Values for exophthalmos, interpupillary distance (IPD), interorbital distance (IOD), distance between medial canthi, and head dimensions were found to be larger than those for Caucasian, Black, or other Chinese groups.

Measurements obtained in this study include facial and head dimensions. From our findings, it would appear that the Chinese population in Hong Kong have not become different in the two or three generations that separate them from those living in Guangdong province of China.

Exophthalmos, interpupillary distance (IPD), interobital distance (IOD), and inner intercanthal distance (ICD) were measured in an adult Chinese population from Hong Kong (HKC). Mean values and normal range for 95% of the population were determined and the relation with head size and body height examined. Values of exophthalmos and IPD in our Chinese population were similar to those given for Caucasian groups. IOD and ICD were larger in the Chinese than in adult Caucasians. Our findings show generally larger values in the HKC than has been found for other populations in mainland China.