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Simple Summary: The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), the only extant species of wild horse, was extinct in the wild in 1960s. The wild horse has been successfully saved from extinction by captive breeding projects outside the historic range. Although multiple studies were conducted, the main problems such as loss of founder genes, inbreeding depression, hybridization with domestic horses, high morbidity and mortality, and a lack of reliable prevention strategies and treatment limitations of these problems are still unresolved and require further scientific effort. This review aims to increase understanding of the scientific attributes that make the survival of the species possible and how these attributes can be useful for appropriate design of conservation and management strategies oriented to improve the viability of the existing population of the species. This review summarizes studies on Przewalski's horse since its extinction in the wild in the 1960s, with a focus on the reintroduction projects in Mongolia and China, with current population status. Historical and present distribution, population trends, ecology and habitats, genetics, behaviors, conservation measures, actual and potential threats are also reviewed. Captive breeding and reintroduction projects have already been implemented, but many others are still under considerations. The review may help to understand the complexity of problem and show the directions for effective practice in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial trade of wild birds may devastate wild bird populations. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) controls the trade of wild species listed in its appendices to avoid these species being threatened by international trade. China used to be one of the major trading countries with significant bird trade with foreign countries; on the other hand, China is a country with unique avian fauna, many Important Bird Areas and critically endangered bird species. What is the role of the country in world wild bird trade? What kind of insights can we extract from trade records for improving future management of wild bird trade in the country? We retrieved and analyzed international trade records of the CITES listed bird species of China from 1981 to 2010 from the CITES Trade Database maintained by United Nations Environment Program and World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). We found that: (1) International trade of live birds in China peaked during the late 1990s, then decreased to the level before the surge of trade in a few years, the trade dynamics of wild birds may be affected by governmental policy and the outbreak of avian influenza during the period. (2) Most frequently traded CITES Appendix listed birds in China were parrots, most of which were exotic species to the country. (3) Birds were mainly traded for commercial purpose. Exotic birds in trade were mainly captive-bred while the most Chinese birds traded internationally were captured from the wild. Since many bird species in international trade are threatened to extinction, China should take stricter measures on importing of wild-captured birds and should collaborate with the countries of original in the international bird trade to avoid unsustainable harvesting of wild birds. It is urgent for China to carry out population surveys on those domestic bird species once in significant international trade and to make better conservation decisions based on population status of those birds. In addition, more scientific researchers should be encouraged to participate in the wildlife trade management to avoid misreporting trade data or biased analyses of the trade records. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Qinghai–Tibet region is a unique geographic zone due to its average altitude of over 4000m, sparse human population and prevalent pastoral system. However, little is known about the energy consumption in the region. We reviewed current situation of energy consumption and its ecological impacts, outlined future energy prospects in the region. Per capita household energy consumption was about two and three times of the national average in Qinghai and Tibet. Per urban household consumed more energy than rural household in the region. Moreover, the urban households and rural households used different energy resources, natural gas and electricity accounted for 57.57% and 42.29%, respectively in household energy consumption in urban areas while biomass accounted for 79.13% and 94.19% in household energy consumption in rural areas in Qinghai and Tibet in 2007. This region was abundant in renewable energy resources and was among the richest in hydro-power and solar energy resources in China. Hydro-power accounted for 67.88% and 92.04% in total electricity in Qinghai and Tibet in 2007. Population density was rather low in this region (4.35 versus 137.63 persons per 100hm2 in Qinghai–Tibet region and China in 2007), thus small photovoltaic power stations and hydro-power plants were more cost-effective than the electricity grid. The overuse of biotic energy resources in rural areas caused decline in soil fertility and desertification. Whereas the low utilization of fossil energy in this region released less waste gas which was beneficial to the local, national and global carbon budgets. Accelerating economic growth and booming tourism have increased energy demand and posed a challenge to the unique ecosystem in the Qinghai–Tibet region. It was estimated that energy consumption of tourism accounted for 6.06% and 14.18% of the total energy consumption in Qinghai and Tibet in 2007. Thus, exploitation of renewable energy resources like solar energy, wind energy and biomass briquette is crucial in striving for a balance among economic development, booming tourism, and environmental protection in this region. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Collection of fuelwood by local residents in or around nature reserves of China has caused problems such as disturbance of habitat for wildlife and deforestation. Thus, it is important to study the energy consumption patterns by those local residents live in or around nature reserves to find solutions to reduce the amount of fuelwood consumption. We chose four nature reserves: Longxi-Hongkou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, Taohongling National Nature Reserve, Jiangxi Province, Qingmuchuan Nature Reserve, Shaanxi Province, and Laoxiancheng Nature Reserve, Shaanxi Province in the subtropical zone of China to study this problem. We found no significant difference of total energy consumption per household per year in the four nature reserves, which was about 2ton of standard coal per year. But the energy consumption patterns in different reserves were different. People who live in deep mountains more relied on collecting fuelwoods from surrounding forests whereas those live in areas with relatively developed economy and better transportation condition consumed more coals, liquidinized petroleum gas and electricity. Such a pattern also reflects the changing energy spectrum during the process of modernization in China. We concluded that economic status of household and the transportation condition are two important factors affecting the energy consumption patterns in households in the nature reserves in China, which reflect the general energy consumption in rural China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We chose five study sites, from a traditional village, the Laoxiancheng Village, in remote mountainous areas to towns, the Houzhenzi Xiang Township, the Mazhao Town and the Zhouzhi County Town, as well as in a modern city, Xi’an in the Shaanxi Province of China, to study differences in energy consumption between rural and urban households and to assess its conservation implications. This study confirmed the prediction of the ‘ladder of fuel preferences’ theory. Energies used in urban households are more convenient, cleaner, and more efficient than those used in rural areas, where biomass and coal are common fuel. The amount of energy used for entertainment and electric appliances is greater in urban areas, whereas the quantity used for cooking is larger in rural districts. People in Laoxiancheng Village completely depended on fuelwood for cooking and heating. In the Houzhenzi Xiang Township, 16.7% household use coal ball, and 23.3% use LPG. Electricity and fuelwood were used in each household. In the Mazhao Town, 96.7% households used crop residue, 90% used coal, about 30% use LPG, and every household used electricity. In the Zhouzhi County Town, of the entire sampled household, 92.7% used coal, 92.7% of household used LPG and 37.5% household used gasoline. In the Xi’an city, of the entire sampled household, 32.8% household used natural gas, 67.2% used LPG; about 34.9% household used gasoline, 48.6% household used electricity and 51.4% used natural gas for heating in winter. In the five study areas, the ratio of each energy source consumed per household was also different. In the Houzhenzi Xiang Township, coal took 6.2%, LPG 1.4%, electricity 1.4% and fuelwood 91%. In the Mazhao Town, crop residue took 31.4%, coal 62.2%, LPG 2.2%, and electricity 4.2%. In the Zhouzhi County Town, the importance of energy ranked as follows: coal 75.8%, LPG 12.8%, electricity 5%, and gasoline 6.4%. In the Xi’an city, LPG took 17.6%, natural gas 27.3%, gasoline 16.9%, and electricity 38.2%. Comparing total annual consumption, households in villages used more energy compared to the households in cities. The mean of total annual energy consumption was 79.57, 63.07, 37.75, 42.53, and 29.73GJ in the Laoxiancheng Village, Houzhenzi Xiang Township, Mazhao Town, Zhouzhi County Town, and Xi’an City, respectively. We should improve the efficiency of fuel burning and introduce cleaner energy resources, such as biogas and hydropower in villages. For the households in rural areas, it is necessary to substitute coal with other cleaner energy resources and it is more important and urgent for urban households to save energy, considering large population in cities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata is a threatened and endemic species to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. With the method of group scan sampling, we observed the behaviours of males and females of the gazelle in the two summers of 2005 and 2006, in order to test the group size effect on group vigilance. We found that male gazelles were significantly more vigilant than the females at both group scan level (percentage of individuals scanning during a session) and group scan frequency (percentage of intervals with at least one individual scanning). We also found a negative correlation between group scan level and group size and a positive correlation between group scan frequency and group size, showing the group size effect on vigilance was testified in Tibetan gazelle. The predation factor might be the main driving force for the group size effect. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) is a threatened species and distributed on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China (Qinghai Province, Tibet Autonomous Region and the adjacent Gansu Province, Sichuan Province, and Xinjiang Uigur Autonomous Region). Small peripheral populations of Tibetan gazelle were once found in northern Sikkim and Ladakh, but now these are close to extinction. To describe the evolutionary history and to assess the genetic diversity within this monotypic species and population structure among different geographic locations in China, we sequenced mitochondrial DNA from the control region (CR) and cytochrome (cyt) b gene for 46 individuals from 12 geographic localities in Qinghai, Tibet, Xinjiang, Gansu, and Sichuan. A total of 25 CR haplotypes and 16 cyt b haplotypes were identified from these gazelle samples. CR haplotype diversity (0.98±0.01) and nucleotide diversity (0.08±0.009) were both high. Phylogenetic trees indicate that the Tibetan gazelle in China can be divided into three main clades: Tibet, Sichuan (SCH) and Qinghai-Arjin Shan-Kekexili (QH-ARJ-KKXL). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) and network analysis consistently support this geographic structure in both datasets. Significant differentiation between populations argues for the presence of management units (MUs). Such differentiation may reflect a geographic separation resulting from the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Mismatch distribution analysis implies that Tibetan gazelle has undergone complex population changes. We suggest that the present population structure has resulted from habitat fragmentation during the recent glacial period on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and population expansion from glacial refugia after the glacial period. It is likely that the present populations of Tibetan gazelle exhibit a pattern reminiscent of several bottlenecks and expansions in the recent past. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In recent years, the purchase of snakes for leather, food, and traditional medicine has increased in China, which has greatly reduced certain snake populations. Trade records show that since the 1990s, with respect to some species of snakes, China is changing from a net export country to a net import country. We analyzed data on international trade in snake species, concentrating, in particular, on trade dynamics and species composition. The overall number of snakes exported appears to have decreased in the last 10 years. However, the number of snakes imported during this period has increased steadily. Many species of snakes that are traded in significant numbers are endangered or threatened species. To conserve snakes in China, we recommended that the Chinese government and the international conservation community take the following actions: enhance legislation and list several species in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) appendices; register all snake farms in China; carry out population and market surveys; monitor the dynamics of trade; encourage biological research; encourage change in food habits; and enhance cooperation between Hong Kong and mainland China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study which examined the reintroduction of Pere David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) in China. Study sites and methods; Results and discussion.

Trade records show that since the 1990s China has changed from a net exporting to a net importing country with respect to some species of snakes. Imports of snakes to China increased up to 2002, when the National Wildlife Management Authority imposed a suspension of international trade in snakes. We investigated the impact of the ban using the same methods as an earlier study of this trade for the period 1990–2001. We found that both imports and exports of snakes recorded in the CITES Trade Database and the Wild Animal and Plant International Trade Database of China have decreased markedly since 2004. The combination of national-level control measures and CITES regulations appear to have controlled the previously unsustainable utilization of snakes in China. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses initiatives taken by China to deal with illegal ivory trade that has become a threat to wildlife. Topics discussed include the ban on import of ivory carvings announced by the State Forestry Administration of China, the Demand-side Strategies for Curbing Illegal Ivory Trade workshop that was organized to understand economy of illegal trade and participation in the law enforcement operation Operation Cobra III that led to several seizures such as elephant ivory.

The production and sales of electric vehicles in China are continuously increasing, and a massive wave of scrap batteries is about to emerge. However, there are many challenges in the power battery recycling, such as a disorganized recycling system, a lack of standards, and low efficiency. In addition, the power battery recycling supply chain faces issues such as a lack of transparency, inadequate data management, low trustworthiness, and counterfeit products. Therefore, it's crucial to establish an efficient and sustainable power battery supply chain recycling system. Blockchain technology can provide solutions in decentralized data management, privacy protection, and anti-counterfeiting traceability. It addresses existing problems and improves the Power Batteries Reverse Supply Chain (PBRSC) ecosystem. Thus, this paper proposes a blockchain-based PBRSC management integration framework. Firstly, a four-layer blockchain power battery recycling platform is designed. Secondly, based on the proposed PBRSC framework, this paper studies three key component technologies: double-chain structure and its storage mechanism, information tracing module, and smart contract enabled battery trading management. Then, the validity and feasibility of the double-chain structure was demonstrated experimentally. Finally, the above architecture and key technologies are implemented in the system, the main functional modules are displayed on the interface, and the effectiveness of the framework is explained in cooperation with related enterprises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many ungulates are reported to use natural or artificial licks with seasonal patterns around the world. From December 2016 to August 2017, we used infrared camera to record the use of artificial licks in wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Zhejiang Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, China. We explored the daily rhythm, seasonal pattern and sex difference in lick utilization. In total, 12,043 videos and 22,901 pictures were collected. Our results showed that: (1) the lick visiting frequency was higher at night than that during daytime; (2) the difference in lick visiting frequency between females and males disappeared after taking into account of sex ratio; (3) the lick duration peaked in April during a year. These findings suggested that there were clear daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer. Seasonal change in lick use intensity was consistent with our prediction. These variations in lick use might be driven by both the physiological needs of the mineral elements in different life stages and the seasonal changes in climate and food. The reserve management authority should pay more attention to the supplement of licks in spring and summer to fulfill animal's physiological needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that a meeting on the reopening of the international trophy hunting of blue sheep and seven Tibetan gazelles in Dulan International Hunting Ground, Qinghai Province, China was conducted by the State Forestry Administration's national wildlife management authority held on August 5, 2011. It says that the issue came out after five years suspension of international trophy hunting. It mentions that an alliance was formed by persons who oppose the idea.

Bluetongue virus (BTV), a member of the genus Orbivirus in the family Reoviridae, is transmitted by biting midges and causes severe disease in domestic and wild ruminants. In the present study, a BTV strain, BTV‐20/GX015/China/2013 (GX015), was isolated from sentinel cattle in Guangxi, China. Virus neutralization tests and phylogenetic analyses based on genomic segments 2 (S2) and 6 (S6) indicated that GX015 belongs to BTV serotype 20 (BTV‐20) and represents a new topotype within BTV‐20 strains, which makes GX015 the first BTV‐20 strain isolated in China. Genomic analyses suggested that the 10 genomic segments of GX015 originated from a reassortment event, in which S2 and S6 are derived from exotic BTV‐20 strains (South Africa or Australia), whereas the remaining eight genomic segments are apparently of Chinese origin and most likely share the same ancestor with a Taiwanese BTV‐12 strain. Importantly, we evaluated the infectivity and pathogenicity of the BTV‐20 strain in mice lacking the interferon receptor (IFNAR–/– mice, a good animal model for studying the pathogenesis, virulence and transmission of BTVs) and sheep for the first time, and found that GX015 causes severe disease and death in IFNAR–/– mice and clinical signs and viraemia in the natural host sheep. These results improve our understanding of the genetic characteristics, diversity and pathogenicity of BTVs, which is important for developing diagnostic methods and vaccines for the surveillance and prevention of bluetongue disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hog deer Axis porcinus formerly occurred in south-west China but has not been recorded there since 1965. To investigate the current status of the species in China, we conducted interviews, and transect and camera-trap surveys during October 2018–June 2020 to search for signs of hog deer across its historical range in the country. We interviewed 50 local inhabitants and surveyed 14 line transects in four counties of Lincang City, Yunnan Province. The camera traps were deployed in Nangunhe Nature Reserve (39.4 km of transects, 82 camera stations, 15,120 camera days) and Daxueshan Nature Reserve (41.1 km of transects, 68 camera stations, 13,554 camera days). We found no hog deer tracks and no hog deer were trapped by cameras. The floodplain grasslands preferred by hog deer along Nanting River have been transformed into agriculture plantations and human settlements. Our findings suggest that hog deer may have been extirpated from China, most likely as a result of habitat loss and overhunting. The conservation priorities for this species in China are the establishment of a protected area in the Nanting River watershed, restoration of habitat and reintroduction of individuals from range countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competition has long been considered as a confounding factor of group size effect but the understanding of interference competition is rudimentary for the difficulty in disentangling interference competition from scramble competition adequately. Here, we analysed remote-camera video records of wild sika deer ( Cervus nippon) at salt licks in southern China from March 1, 2006 to November 30, 2008 to investigate how interference competition and predation risk interacted on vigilance behaviour. Scramble competition is negligible at salt licks; therefore, we could focus our interest in interference competition. We used linear mixed model to compare vigilance, licking and aggression behaviours among females with and without fawn as well as males with different group sizes to identify the primary role of vigilance behaviour in sika deer. In total, 168 individuals were recorded and observation time was 2,733.04 min. We found that deer spent much time on vigilance and scanned frequently in spring and winter, and females with fawn spent more time on vigilance than females without fawn, suggesting vigilance for predation risk. Aggression ratio increased first and then decreased, while scan frequency continued to decline and then slightly increased when group size increased from two to seven, implying vigilance for interference competition. Our results suggested vigilance in sika deer was influenced by both predation risk and interference competition, but was mainly driven by predation risk even at sites with intense interference competition. Our results of interference competition shed some light on finding the underlying mechanism of group size effect in wild populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Many ungulate species around the world have been reported to use natural lick, and most have shown seasonal patterns of lick use. However few researches focused on sexual differences in seasonal patterns of salt lick use. From January 2006 to December 2008, we used remote video cameras to record the uses of artificial salt licks by wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Taohongling Nature Reserve, China. We compared sex differences of artificial salt lick use by sika deer assessing both lick use frequency and time spent licking. Our results showed that: (1) there were significant differences in monthly lick use frequency and monthly time spent licking between the two sexes. Females tended to use licks frequently during lactation while the uses of licks by males peaked during the rut; (2) both females and males used salt licks frequently during the period of pelage change; (3) no significant differences were recorded between the individuals of two sexes in terms of staying time, time spent licking per visit and lick duration. We suggest that sika deer could adjust their using of salt licks based on their sodium requirements in different physiological stages. Implications of this study for reserve managers are that more sodium should be supplemented during the rut and lactation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Indoor environmental quality significantly influences the occurrence of asthma attack. Zunyi District has abundant coal reserves and is regarded as one of the cities that are most severely polluted by high levels of particulate matter in China. This study aimed to examine the correlation of indoor exposure with adult respiratory health, as well as the differences in effect between winter and summer.Methods: A cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted among 1207 adult residents in Zunyi, Guizhou Province of Southwest China in winter and summer. Data on health variables related to asthma and home environmental factors were collected using a modified European Community Respiratory Health Survey II questionnaire. The following data were obtained: samples of particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) inside and outside the households under study (n = 20); lung function status, including peak expiratory flow rate, forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), and FEV1/FVC ratio.Result: The odds ratio (OR) for asthma-like symptoms and asthma in adults using coal stove for cooking or warming, relative to non-users, was 1.73 (95% CI, 1.11-2.69) in winter vs. 1.30 (95% CI, 0.79-2.14) in summer. Adult residents with exposure to cooking oil fumes were at a considerably higher risk of asthma-like symptoms and asthma [OR = 2.65 (95% CI, 1.25 to 5.61) in winter vs. OR = 7.93 (95% CI, 2.54 to 24.75] in summer] than those without such exposure. The prevalence of asthma-like symptoms and asthma was significantly higher in adults with high kitchen risk scores or high sleeping-area risk scores than in those with low scores in both seasons (p < 0.05). The relative kitchen and sleeping area PM2.5 concentrations were higher in winter than in summer (p < 0.05). Lung function was negatively associated with indoor kitchen and sleeping area relative PM2.5 concentration in winter rather than summer (p < 0.001). The effect of exposure to indoor risk factors on lung function among the residents was greater in winter than in summer (p < 0.001).Conclusion: Exposure to indoor risk factors, such as aerocontaminants from coal combustion, causes asthma symptoms and reduces pulmonary function. The effect of indoor risk factors on respiratory health among adults with such exposure was greater in winter than in summer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the concept of remanufacturing is gaining popularity in practice, its effect on environmental protection and energy saving is significant, which has attracted widespread concerns, especially in the automotive components field. Automotive components remanufacturing (ACR), as a prominent part in automotive life-cycle development, can dramatically reduce resources-waste and mitigate energy-crisis, which has become a prominent direction to promote sustainable development of Chinese economy. Thus, influence factors analysis and enterprise operation patterns assessment which primarily contribute to ACR industry development are of paramount importance. This paper elaborates the criteria influencing the ACR industry operation and analyzes the main operation patterns for ACR in China. To overcome the uncertainty of the evaluation process, a new hybrid multi-criterion decision-making (MCDM) model that combines fuzzy AHP (analytical hierarchy process) and fuzzy G-TOPSIS (combining gray relation analysis and technique for order performance by similarity to ideal solution) is proposed to determine weights of influence criteria and evaluate ACR production operation patterns. In addition, sensitivity analysis is applied to monitor the robustness of the method. The study refers to the experience of Chinese end-of-life vehicle (ELV) laws and implementation requirements of extended producer responsibility (EPR). The obtained results provide the new guideline to revise the regulations of Chinese ACR industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 166 faecal specimens from diarrheic cattle were collected in China for detection of bovine kobuvirus (BKV) by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) targeting the region a portion of the 3D nonstructural protein, with an amplicon size of 631 bp. The RNA corresponding to the BKV 3D region was detected in 34.9 % of faecal samples (58/166) in four major dairy-cattle-production areas in China, and sequence analysis based on the partial 3D sequences (35/58) indicated that the Chinese BKVs shared 88.9-96.2 % nucleotide sequence identity to BKV reference strains. Further phylogenetic analysis based on the complete VP1-encoding sequences (17/35) revealed that the Chinese BKVs shared 81-83.4 % nucleotide sequence identity to the U-1 strain, and these Chinese BKV strains, together with the U-1 strain, are apparently divided into four lineages, representing four genotypes of BKV, designated as A, B, C and D. Our results show that BKV infection is widely distributed, with high genetic diversity in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Vigilance is used to detect predators and monitor rivals. We studied red-crowned cranes (Grus japonensis) in Yancheng Biosphere Reserve, China, to examine changes in the allocation of time to vigilance as a function of flock size in areas with different levels of human disturbance. There was low level of human activity in the core area of the reserve whereas more human activity occurred in the buffer zone. Vigilance decreased linearly with flock size but to significantly different extent in the two areas, with a more pronounced decrease in the more disturbed area. In smaller crane flocks, vigilance was higher in the more disturbed area. Vigilance also varied in a non-linear fashion with flock size first decreasing and then increasing in larger flocks. Increase in vigilance in larger flocks was accompanied by an increase in fighting suggesting that vigilance in large flocks was aimed partly at monitoring rivals. The effect of human disturbance on vigilance suggests that less time is available for foraging in more disturbed areas. Nevertheless, moving to less disturbed areas may not be an option for the cranes given the increase in vigilance that would probably occur in areas with more cranes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two surveys of opinions about wildlife conservation were carried out in Hunan Province, China, before and after the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic. Hunan is the northern neighbor of Guangdong Province, where the first SARS case was reported. The custom of consuming wild meat was not common in Hunan 30 years ago. However, in recent years, consumption of wildlife such as snakes has spread to northern China. We handed out 1300 questionnaires between 22 February and 10 May 2002, before the SARS epidemic. Survey sites included the provincial capital, major cities, towns, and villages in Hunan. Another 1300 questionnaires were distributed between 10 March and 10 May 2004, after the SARS epidemic. The 2004 survey covered the same sites as the 2002 survey. Questionnaire recovery rates for the 2002 and 2004 surveys were 81.2% and 84.6%, respectively. The valid return rate was 73.0%. Frog, snake, hare, and pheasant were the wild meats most frequently eaten by local people. At the time of the first survey, more than 80% of interviewees claimed to have eaten frogs. That number had reduced to 60% by the time of the second survey. Monkey, Chinese pangolin, and bear paw were the wild meats least frequently eaten. Although palm civet was suspected to be the carrier of SARS, it was interesting to note that, after the SARS epidemic, the proportion of people surveyed who ate palm civets had declined only slightly. The results of the surveys indicate a low level of conservation consciousness; however, after the SARS and bird flu epidemics, there were obvious changes in the conservation consciousness of people in Hunan Province. We recommend some measures that could be taken to change the habits of people who consume wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]