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Unsustainable wildlife consumption and illegal wildlife trade (IWT) threaten biodiversity worldwide. Although publicly accessible data sets are increasingly used to generate insights into IWT, little is known about their potential bias. We compared three typical and temporally corresponding data sets (4204 court verdicts, 926 seizure news reports, and 219 bird market surveys) on traded birds native to China and evaluated their possible species biases. Specifically, we evaluated bias and completeness of sampling for species richness, phylogeny, conservation status, spatial distribution, and life‐history characteristics among the three data sets when determining patterns of illegal trade. Court verdicts contained the largest species richness. In bird market surveys and seizure news reports, phylogenetic clustering was greater than that in court verdicts, where songbird species (i.e., Passeriformes) were detected in higher proportions in market surveys. The seizure news data set contained the highest proportion of species of high conservation priority but the lowest species coverage. Across the country, all data sets consistently reported relatively high species richness in south and southwest regions, but markets revealed a northern geographic bias. The species composition in court verdicts and markets also exhibited distinct geographical patterns. There was significant ecological trait bias when we modeled whether a bird species is traded in the market. Our regression model suggested that species with small body masses, large geographical ranges, and a preference for anthropogenic habitats and those that are not nationally protected were more likely to be traded illegally. The species biases we found emphasize the need to know the constraints of each data set so that they can optimally inform strategies to combat IWT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Threatened species are inadequately represented within protected areas (PAs) across the globe. Species conservation planning may be improved by using public species-occurrence databases, but empirical evidence is limited of how that may be accomplished at local scales. We used the Three Parallel Rivers Region of China as a case to investigate the utility of public species data in improvement in conservation planning. We mapped the distribution of each species as suitable habitat ranges using species distribution models (for 261 plants and 29 animals with ≥5 occurrences) or as point locations (for 591 plants and 328 animals with <5 occurrences). Systematic conservation planning was then applied to identify three optimized portfolios of priority conservation areas (PCAs) for achieving increasing targets of 17, 31, and 50% of the total study area. We then compared the distributions of PCAs in this study with those in two existing PCA datasets. PCAs in this study covered greater areas in the southeastern highly-disturbed regions and along valleys of great rivers than two existing datasets that had a focus on intact ecosystems in remote mountain areas. The three portfolios of PCAs had some overlap with two existing PCA datasets, with the overlapping area accounting for 26.4–39.0% of the total areas of our PCAs. Our PCAs could complement existing PCAs by identifying more priority areas in developed landscapes; this is critical for protecting biodiversity in such areas as they face greater pressures. PCAs in this study received a much lower PA coverage (32.9–43.1%) than existing PCAs (60.2–60.8%) because of biased PA distribution toward mountain areas. Our results suggest that conservation planning based on limited public species data could improve local-scale priority-setting practices. The analysis supports effective integration of species targets in China's new national park system by identifying optimized networks of PCAs. • Existing priority conservation areas focus on intact ecosystems in mountain areas. • Planning based on public species data has expanded coverage in developed regions. • Limited public species-data can improve local-scale priority-setting practices. • This work promotes the integration of species targets in China's new PA system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Habenaria rhodocheila is pollinated by the swallowtail butterfly Papilio helenus • H. rhodocheila is self-compatible, but depends on P. helenus for pollination • The insect proboscis length is similar to the spur length, but slightly shorter • During pollination, the pollinarium is attached to the base of the proboscis • H. rhodocheila appears adapted for specialized pollination by P. helenus Habenaria rhodocheila is different from other species in the genus as it has bright yellow-orange, orange-red or red floral colors and grows in subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests. It is listed as a level II protected plant in China. This study focused on details of the pollination mechanism, including floral structure, the pollinator and its behavior, the pollination process, and fruit set in its natural environment compared to controlled artificial pollination. Our results showed that the flowers of H. rhodocheila are self-compatible, but rely on a pollinating agent due to the lack of an automatic self-pollination mechanism. At three sites the flowers of H. rhodocheila were frequently pollinated by a species of the swallowtail butterfly Papilio helenus L. During pollination, the butterfly inserts its proboscis into the spur aperture. The base of the proboscis then contacts the viscidia and the pollinarium sticks to the insect, followed by contact between pollinia and stigmas. The length of the proboscis of P. helenus is comparable to, but slightly shorter than the length of the floral spur. The pollination activity generally occurs between 9:30 AM to 1:30 PM daily and is especially frequent between 10:30 AM and 11:30 AM. These results suggest that the similarity between the length of the butterfly's proboscis and the length of the orchid's spur is a major factor contributing to the efficient pollination of H. rhodocheila in its natural habitat. Most species in Habenaria are moth-pollinated, whereas our research has shown that H. rhodocheila in subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in China is specifically adapted to butterfly pollination by P. helenus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Butterflies provide numerous ecological and socio-economic services and are important indicator species. China is home to over 2000 species of butterflies and in recent years has elevated biodiversity conservation on the national agenda. This manuscript reviews China's butterfly conservation efforts and its legal and policy frameworks. We note some of the current limitations in butterfly conservation (inappropriate listing of protected species; over-reliance on inventories, rather than holistic research) and offer numerous recommendations to improve conservation efforts. Our recommendations include those related to integration of scientific data into policy (designation of scientifically-based protected areas; development of appropriate criteria for classifying protected species; use of umbrella species for conservation purposes), adoption of butterfly-friendly land use policies in rural and urban areas, butterfly ranching and farming, use of citizen science to improve data collection, and enhanced public outreach and environmental education campaigns. Our recommendations will help further the goals of China's National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2011–2030). About 10% of the Earth's butterfly species inhabit the highly diverse ecosystems of China. Important for the ecological, economic, and cultural services they provide, many butterfly species experience threats from land use shifts and climate change. China has recently adopted policies to protect the nation's biodiversity resources. This essay examines the current management of butterflies in China and suggests various easily implementable actions that could improve these conservation efforts. Our recommendations are based on the observations of a transdisciplinary group of entomologists and environmental policy specialists. Our analysis draws on other successful examples around the world that China may wish to consider. China needs to modify its scientific methodologies behind butterfly conservation management: revising the criteria for listing protected species, focusing on umbrella species for broader protection, identifying high priority areas and refugia for conservation, among others. Rural and urban land uses that provide heterogeneous habitats, as well as butterfly host and nectar plants, must be promoted. Butterfly ranching and farming may also provide opportunities for sustainable community development. Many possibilities exist for incorporating observations of citizen scientists into butterfly data collection at broad spatial and temporal scales. Our recommendations further the ten Priority Areas of China's National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2011–2030). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Malayan box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) (MBT) is a vulnerable and protected species widely used in exotic foods and traditional medicines. Currently available polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to identify MBT lack automation and involve long targets which break down in processed or denatured tissue. This SYBR Green duplex real-time PCR assay has addressed this research gap for the first time through the combination of 120- and 141-bp targets from MBT and eukaryotes for the quantitative detection of MBT DNA in food chain and herbal medicinal preparations. This authentication ensures better security through automation, internal control and short targets that were stable under the processing treatments of foods and medicines. A melting curve clearly demonstrated two peaks at 74.63 ± 0.22 and 78.40 ± 0.31°C for the MBT and eukaryotic products, respectively, under pure, admixed and commercial food matrices. Analysis of 125 reference samples reflected a target recovery of 93.25-153.00%, PCR efficiency of 99-100% and limit of detection of 0.001% under various matrices. The quantification limits were 0.00001, 0.00170 ± 0.00012, 0.00228 ± 0.00029, 0.00198 ± 0.00036 and 0.00191 ± 0.00043 ng DNA for the pure meat, binary mixtures, meatball, burger and frankfurter products, respectively. The assay was used to screen 100 commercial samples of traditional Chinese herbal jelly powder from eight different brands; 22% of them were found to be MBT-positive (5.37 ± 0.50-7.00 ± 0.34% w/w), which was reflected through the Ct values (26.37 ± 0.32-28.90 ± 0.42) and melting curves (74.63-78.65 ± 0.22°C) of the amplified MBT target (120 bp), confirming the speculation that MBT materials are widely used in Chinese herbal desserts, exotic dishes consumed with the hope of prolonging life and youth.