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This article shows that the threshold model appropriately analysed can explain the emigration process as a consequence of the network features, where the willingness to emigrate depends on the personal and household conditions borne by the emigrant. In such a case, the emigration process can be defined in terms of a Pólya schema, and the emigration rate converges almost surely to a random variable with a beta distribution, which fully characterizes the network (assimilation, integration, separation or marginalization). The model is applied to Ecuador, which has experienced an unprecedented wave of emigration since 1998. We show that, despite the massive exodus, the process does not constitute a diaspora, because Ecuadorians do not interact appropriately with natives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to present the economic heterogeneity of Ecuador's regions using a descriptive analysis, and also to explain its main causes and implications. In comparison to the European Union, Ecuador exhibits a much higher degree of economic heterogeneity within regions and provinces. We relate this pattern to the dynamics of the economic structure, and we also highlight the progress done by now in enhancing regional convergence in Ecuador. The implications of the regional economic heterogeneity are important for the design of effective governmental policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We use the spatial panel regression model to estimate the land Kuznets curve. • We examine spatial auto-correlations in the building permits in Ecuador. • A Bayesian selection method allows selecting the right spatial model and weight matrix. • Economic development has a U-shape relationship with land use. • Spatial spillover effects have a limited extent and affect only closest neighbours. The ratio of building permits to population is a key indicator to evaluate land consumption. However, few researchers focus on land consumption and its environmental spillovers, for developing countries. The aim of our study, using a Bayesian comparison approach applied to a spatial panel, is to analyse the existence of an inverted U-shaped curve relationship between land consumption and economic development, namely the environmental Kuznets curve, with data that ranges from 2007 to 2015 for 221 cantons in Ecuador. The Bayesian comparison approach allows us to identify: i) the spatial weight matrix that best fits the data, and ii) the best spatial model according to the type of spatial spillovers (local or global). These are both of extreme interest because a knowledge of the extent to which the spatial spillovers spread over space, and their functional form, supports the planning of effective land use policies. The results do not support the inverted U-shaped hypothesis of the Kuznets curve. By contrast, the curvature is convex, which means higher levels of land consumption for higher levels of wealth. Spatial spillovers spread to a limited extent, highlighting an imitation game among agents, both institutions and private agents, in the neighbour locations. Policy implications go from the strengthening of the institutional framework and local tax management, to the urban regeneration to limit real estate speculation. All these interventions should be coordinated among neighbours to avoid freeriding behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]