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This study aimed to examine the impact of a universal, school-based intervention, the Good Behavior Game (GBG), on children's behavior, and to explore any subgroup moderator effects among children at varying levels of cumulative risk (CR) exposure. A 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted comprising 77 primary schools in England. Teachers in intervention schools delivered the GBG, whereas their counterparts in control schools continued their usual provision. Behavior (specifically disruptive behavior, concentration problems, and pro-social behavior) was assessed via the checklist version of the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation. A CR index was calculated by summing the number of risk factors to which each child was exposed. Multilevel models indicated that no main or subgroup effects were evident. These findings were largely insensitive to the modeling of CR although a small intervention effect on disruptive behavior was found when the curvilinear trend was used. Further sensitivity analyses revealed no apparent influence of the level of program differentiation. In sum, our findings indicate that the GBG does not improve behavior when implemented in this sample of English schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine the efficacy of the Good Behavior Game (GBG) in improving children's reading attainment, and the extent to which this varies as a function of cumulative intervention intensity (dosage) and timing of outcome measurement. A 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted. Seventy-seven primary schools from three regions in England were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. Children (N = 3084) aged 67 at baseline were the target cohort. The GBG is an interdependent group-contingency behavior management strategy used by teachers in elementary schools. Reading attainment was assessed via national teacher assessment scores at baseline, and the Hodder Group Reading Test at post-test and 1-year post-intervention follow-up. Dosage was assessed using a bespoke online GBG scoreboard system. Multi-level intent-to-treat (ITT) and complier average causal effect (CACE) estimation were utilized. At post-test, no effects of the GBG on children's reading attainment were found in either the ITT or CACE models. At 1-year follow-up, results remained null in the ITT model, but a significant intervention effect was found among moderate compliers (Δ = 0.10) in the CACE model. The GBG can produce measurable improvements in children's academic attainment, but these effects may take time to become apparent and are contingent upon implementation dosage falling within an optimal range. The project was supported by funding from the Education Endowment Foundation and the National Institute for Health Research. ISRCTN: 64152096. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]