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This study aims to explain the patterns of species richness and nestedness of a terrestrial bird community in a poorly studied region. Twenty-six islands in the Dahlak Archipelago, Southern Red Sea, Eritrea. The islands and five mainland areas were censused in summer 1999 and winter 2001. To study the importance of island size, isolation from the mainland and inter-island distance, I used constrained null models for the nestedness temperature calculator and a cluster analysis. Species richness depended on island area and isolation from the mainland. Nestedness was detected, even when passive sampling was accounted for. The nested rank of islands was correlated with area and species richness, but not with isolation. Idiosyncrasies appeared among species-poor and species-rich islands, and among common and rare species. Cluster analysis showed differences among species-rich islands, close similarity among species-poor and idiosyncratic islands, and that the compositional similarity among islands decreased with increasing inter-island distance. Thus, faunas of species-poor, smaller islands were more likely to be subsets of faunas of species-rich, larger islands if the distance between the islands was short. Species richness and nestedness were related to island area, and nestedness also to inter-island distances but not to isolation from the mainland. Thus, nestedness and species richness are not affected in the same way by area and distance. Moreover, idiosyncrasies may have been the outcome of species distributions among islands being influenced also by non-nested distributions of habitats, inter–specific interactions, and differences in species distributions across the mainland. Idiosyncrasies in nested patterns may be as important as the nested pattern itself for conservation – and conservation strategies based on nestedness and strong area effects (e.g. protection of only larger islands) may fail to preserve idiosyncratic species/habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of African Languages & Linguistics is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper aims to offer a historical overview, legal framework and analysis of the reserve force, conscription or compulsory military service, and militia systems in Ethiopia from the period of Emperor Haile Selassie to the present. Methodologically, it employs an empirical examination of literature and legal documents on the reserve force, conscription and the militia. There is an inadequacy of literature on the three major citizen soldier defence institutions in Ethiopia, and this paper is a partial attempt to fill the knowledge gap. The paper discusses the legal framework of the Emperor’s effort to create a reserve force named Territorial Amy, which more or less met its objective, even though the effort to start national military service failed. The military government’s vicious mobilisation of militia and heavy recruitment of the youth for national military service resulted from the extended civil war that ended with the liberation of Eritrea and the toppling of the government. Currently, the government is planning to start national military service; on the other hand, a nominal reserve force exists, and the mostly rural institution of the militia plays an important citizen soldier role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refugees rarely flee in isolation. Instead, their everyday lives and mobilities are fundamentally shaped by the broader set of social relations in which they are embedded, particularly by their families. Drawing on interviews with sixty displaced people living in Germany and in-depth case studies of the trajectories of refugees from Eritrea and Syria, we reconstruct the role that families and other social relations transgressing national borders have played in their mobility to Germany and how their lives have been rescaled since initial displacement. Based on central ideas from figurational sociology, which we link with scholarship on forced migration, transnationalism and family relations, our paper identifies four specific family figurations in displacement that represent typical mobility patterns and constellations of 'doing family' in transnational spaces: the lone yet connected traveller; the reunited nuclear family; the transnationally separated family; and the transnationally extended family. We argue that family figurations in displacement are, on the one hand, decisively shaped by specific family relations and distinct displacement trajectories with various phases of family separation and reunion. On the other hand, they are fundamentally configured by migration regimes and asylum systems that substantially constrain the opportunities to live dignified local or transnational family lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tigrinya, a Semitic language spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia, is one of about 300 known languages world-wide that mark certain direct object nominals while leaving others unmarked. Cross-linguistically, this phenomenon, known as differential object marking (DOM), is most often correlated with the relative definiteness and/or animacy of the object. The divergence among languages in DOM is explained in Optimality Theory by the different ways in which languages resolve the tension between iconicity (favoring marked structures) on the one hand and economy (penalizing marking) on the other hand. Based on a statistical analysis of object marking in a chapter of a contemporary Tigrinya novel, this paper argues that Tigrinya is an example of two-dimensional DOM in which nominal object marking largely correlates with the definiteness and, to a lesser degree, the animacy of the object. The paper also considers the relationship between nominal and verbal object marking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars studying race and racial classification in post-apartheid South Africa have paid little attention to how African refugees navigate the South African racial classification scheme and how they self-identity in the face of their everyday encounters with imposed racial classification in South Africa. This paper addresses this research gap by exploring how first-generation Eritrean refugees self-identify in the context of an imposed South African racial classification system. The result reported here forms part of a broader research study that explored how Eritrean refugees in South Africa self-defined in the face of racialization. The broader study identified various themes but this paper only reports on those who defined their race as Habesha in the face of their experiences with racial classification. I argue that by defining their race as Habesha, participants re-defined race as a pan-ethnic identity dissociating racial identity from physical appearance and skin colour. Some refugees who never self-identified in terms of phenotype-based racial categories are nuancing traditional definitions of racial identity in post-apartheid South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During European colonial times in Africa and elsewhere, missionary education was an integral part of the colonial instruments for political domination, economic exploitation, and cultural assimilation. This paper aims to investigate the process of making colonial subjects through missionary education that was mainly provided by Catholic and Evangelical mission schools during the Italian colonial period in Eritrea. The paper argues that the Catholic and Evangelical mission schools distinctively worked to achieve their separate objectives that can be explained as employment versus salvation, teaching versus preaching, flag versus Bible, and hands versus soul, respectively. While the Catholic mission school focused on training the hand in order to supply labour, the Evangelical mission school stressed harvesting the soul to cultivate a docile labour force. Despite their differences, the works of the Catholic and Evangelical mission schools placed much emphasis on and exerted much effort to producing a class of colonial subjects that could serve as brokers of power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the proposed strict new constraints of public authorities, decarbonization has become a key trend in recent years. Although several countries have started the process of decarbonization through the introduction of electric vehicles in their public services, for many countries, especially developing countries, transportation is still a hard sector to decarbonize. The presence of obsolete and polluting vehicles discourages citizens from using public transport and thus incentivizes the use of private vehicles, which create traffic congestion and increase emissions. Based on these considerations, this paper aimed to implement a simulation for a public service in Eritrea, evaluating whether it is possible to take a long trip using an electric minibus. A case study is implemented highlighting the barriers of electrifying transportation in this area, producing results on fuel consumption and service reliability. In the case study, four scenarios are presented to estimate the service. The scenarios evaluate the possibility to perform from three to five recharges. Fewer charges mean longer charging time, leading to a 2 h charging phase in Scenario 1, while recharging more than twice along the route will lead to shorter 30 min charges, as in Scenario 3. The case study also highlights the relevance of the slope in electric vehicle performance, as reported for the case of Asmara–Massawa travel ( E c o n s = 6.688 kWh). Finally, an environmentally sustainable solution, such as a 92 kWh/day photovoltaic plant, is proposed to power the service. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes a conceptual and empirical reflection on the relationship between human smuggling, trafficking and kidnapping, and extortion in Libya. It is based on qualitative interview data with Eritrean asylum seekers in Italy. Different tribal regimes control separate territories in Libya, which leads to different experiences for migrants depending on which territory they enter, such as Eritreans entering in the southeast Toubou controlled territory. We put forth that the kidnapping and extortion experienced by Eritreans in Libya is neither trafficking, nor smuggling, but a crime against humanity orchestrated by an organized criminal network. The paper details this argument and discusses the implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the purpose of this study, A statistical test of Biblical books was conducted using the recently discovered probability models for text homogeneity and text change point detection. Accordingly, translations of Biblical books of Tigrigna and Amharic (major languages spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia) and English were studied. A Zipf-Mandelbrot distribution with a parameter range of 0.55 to 0.88 was obtained in these three Bibles. According to the statistical analysis of the texts' homogeneity, the translation of Bible in each of these three languages was a heterogeneous concatenation of different books or genres. Furthermore, an in-depth examination of the text segmentation of prat of a single genre—the English Bible letters revealed that the Pauline letters are heterogeneous concatenations of two homogeneous segments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines enforcement practices and intra-ethnic interactions and encounters across the international border between Eritrea and Ethiopia from 2000 to 2018, with a particular focus on the Central Sector. The specific objective is to investigate how the Tigrinya ethnic group, who were arbitrarily separated by the colonial border between Eritrea and Ethiopia, make use of intra-ethnic relationships to combat the new border enforcement practices imposed by Eritrea and Ethiopia to advance their everyday reciprocal interests. This micro perspective is applied to two border towns, Serha and Tserona, which are located at Eritrea's border with Ethiopia. By analysing the everyday lived experiences of the people who live along the border, this article argues that the underground cross-border support and interactions among kin groups play a significant role in their everyday lives as they combat the States' everyday border enforcement practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the start of the millennium, asylum seekers (ASs) from Eritrea and South Sudan began arriving in Israel as a consequence of armed conflicts in their countries. In their first months of stay, their civil status was not regulated. Later on, the state regulated it based on the Prevention of Infiltration Law (1954), originally designed to prevent Palestinian-Arab refugees from returning to the country. The African ASs represent less than one-third of the undocumented immigrants in Israel but their skin color highlights their alienness thus they are prone to both official and unofficial criminalization. This paper deals with state violence directed at the African ASs through practices of criminalization and othering as applied by Israeli politics and the justice system towards undocumented African migrants in Israel as dangerous and undesirable others. The discussion presents implications for an agentic human rights action-based model for further inquiry and practice that resists othering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the litigation strategies adopted by Eritrea and Ethiopia before the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission convened at The Permanent Commission of Arbitration at The Hague between 2001 and 2009. I pursue insights from the work of Laura Nader concerning how, through binding arbitration, the international community imposes its power on disputing parties as opposed to allowing their competing legal claims to be fairly decided. The claims examined by this paper concern who started the border war and that Ethiopia denationalized 'Eritrean' nationals and unlawfully deprived them of their property. I conclude that the PCA's decisions on Eritrea and Ethiopia were flawed and that its deliberations need to be viewed in a much wider political context; furthermore its decisions contributed to further political instability in the Horn of Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Once a unified state, Ethiopia and Eritrea experienced a catastrophic war. Although deep-rooted economic and political conditions were at work in the background, issues of an improperly demarcated border triggered the 1998–2000 war. During the outbreak both Ethiopia and Eritrea were already emerging from another war. As a result, tens of thousands died, and millions were displaced. The intervention of the international community averted the war. The Organization of African Unity arbitrated the matter, supported by the United Nations, the European Union and the United States. However, disagreement over the implementation of the technical arrangements of the arbitration obstructed the full-scale implementation of the arbitration – leading to a period of 'no peace, no war'. Both maintained an adamant position, and resuming relations appears impossible unless a change of government takes place. Fortunately, a wave of civil resistance rocked Ethiopia from 2015 to 2018, resulting in national reform in mid-February 2018. This opened the initiative for the resumption of relations. This paper discusses the conditions contributing to the renewal of the Ethiopian–Eritrean ties and the steps taken by both to revise their foreign policy directions that had them in a deadlock for decades. It also identifies risk factors bottlenecking the full-scale normalisation of the rapprochement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, many developing countries are using biomass as their primary energy supply. However, this energy affects the environment, health and safety of women and children. In addition, utilization of this energy using traditional cooking stoves is causing indoor air pollution and in turn health problems to millions of people. To overcome such problems, efforts are being made by researchers globally and are suggesting alternative safe energy sources. This paper demonstrates solar cooker with an integrated PCM thermal storage and heat transportation loop system suitable for high temperature applications. The system has designed to address Injera baking application. Injera, a fermented flat bread type, is the most common food type served three to four times a day in Ethiopia. Other countries like Eritrea, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen also use this food. The storage system has storing capacity of heat up to 2500C and it can retain this heat for about two days. The storage has coupled to a polar mounted concentrator, fixed receiver and used steam heat transfer fluid. The steam circulates naturally between the evaporator and condenser in a closed loop. The paper focuses on indirect charging, simultaneous charging-discharging and discharging of the stored heat for the purpose of Injera baking. The frying pan is a custom-made aluminum plate casted by embedding a 10mm coiled stainless steel steam pipe as heating element. The pan is 500mm in diameter and 30mm thick; and the fins are 20mm in diameter and 140mm long. The fins have immersed into a 20kg PCM, which is coupled to a 1.8m diameter parabolic dish collector. The solar fryer demonstrates Injera baking for average family size. Baking is tested from the stored heat, while storage is charging. A fully charged storage has supplied enough heat to baked average household Injera demands about 19Injeras and additional breads with the remaining heat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that access to quality education and skills development programs for refugees, returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) is not only one of the fundamental human rights that states and non-state actors have obligations to fulfill; it is also an integral part of sustainable development efforts which will have significant contributions to socio-economic transformation in host countries, countries of origin and countries of destinations in the event that refugees become migrant, which is sometimes the case. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) region, consisting of eight member states, namely, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda, host more than 13 million forcibly displaced people. This results from protracted and devastating conflicts; drought and famine and other natural or man-made calamities. Within the IGAD region, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan produce 80 to 90% of displacement due to protracted civil wars. However, almost all the member states have refugees, IDPs or migrants sheltered in their territories. Access to higher education among refugees, returnees and IDPs is very low at only 3% compared to 36% globally. The figure for Africa is still dismal, at less than 1%; and the same holds true for the IGAD region. In an effort to address this major challenge facing these population categories, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) convened a high level regional (Ministerial Conference) on refugee education held in Djibouti, 12-14 December 2017. That Conference adopted what is now called the Djibouti declaration and Plan of Action for refugee education in the IGAD region. The major purpose of this paper was is to outline the refugee situations in general and the state of higher education in the region in particular.

Copyright of Religion & Tolerance / Religija & Tolerancija is the property of Center for the Empirical Researches of Religion and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The development of any country is critical to the economic survival and vibrancy of that country. This holds particularly true for developing countries like Eritrea, who is still struggling with many challenges particularly in its education sector. It does not have sufficient educational institutions at tertiary level, thus, distance learning which is more cost effective, could be an alternative method of higher education for this young and poor country. This paper therefore examines various issues related to the establishment and development of Distance Education (DE). The paper also focuses on DE programmes that had been undertaken in Eritrea with the help of University of South Africa and highlights its potential in the country. The paper also delves its significance and role with regards to the education development in Eritrea, the challenges ahead as well as possible suggestions for moving it forward with enhanced effectiveness for the benefit of the nation and incoming generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eritreans have experienced protracted conflict and displacement over the last half a century. Aside from marginalisation, immobilisation, highly constrained livelihood options and legal limbo, this has also created a complex and dynamic web of transnational networks of Eritrean refugees and diasporas around the world. In this paper, we argue that protractedly displaced people are not only entangled with forced immobility but also encounter opportunities to create new migration pathways. This ethnographic study shows how protractedly displaced people build up socio-spatial connections and sequential small-scale mobility, circumventing the multiple constraints the governance regimes have placed upon them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To estimate Eritrean national blood demand and demand satisfaction and to assess the associated trend of blood and blood products usage. Background: Estimating blood demand to determine collection goals is a challenge in many low‐income countries, including Eritrea. Methodology: This study was a 5‐year survey of a representative sample of hospitals and was conducted in the National Blood Transfusion Center of Eritrea. Four referral hospitals in Asmara were selected. Blood bank registers and blood request papers were reviewed retrospectively from 2013 to 2017 to determine the number of components requested and the number and units issued. Data were calculated for annual trends in the difference between request and issue of blood products and the annual national estimate. Results: The largest met‐demand percentages were seen for International Organization for Cardiac Centre Asmara (IOCCA) (88.63%) followed by surgeries (79.49%), active bleeding (73.76%) and anaemia (67.82%), which were mostly requested for adult patients (>40 years). The mean value of requested products and issued products per patient were 2.50 (±0.972) and 1.81 (±0.839), respectively. The calculated correlation coefficient for the difference between demand and demand satisfaction was strong (R2 = 0.967), implying an increasing linear difference. It was estimated that nearly 72% of blood component demand was met over the 5 years. Conclusion: Even though there was an increase in blood collection over years, the Eritrean National Blood Transfusion Services (NBTS) still falls short in satisfying the full demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two conferences held on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of Eritrean independence operate as Austinian "unhappy performatives." Using a performance studies lens offers new ways of understanding the dynamics of scholarship about international politics, thereby contributing to wider debates on how performances of truths often replace truth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing availability of previously declassified material on the Cold War has allowed scholars to revisit old questions with new, more decisive, evidence. In this paper, we draw on this archival material to address the unresolved question of what Cuba's involvement against the Eritrean Liberation struggle consisted of in the late 1970s, and importantly why they engaged in this way, given a historical commitment to the Eritrean Liberation movement's goals. While a seemingly minor point in a protracted 30-year struggle for Eritrean independence, we argue that clarifying this matters for several reasons, not least that Cuban support for the Ethiopian offensive against the Eritreans was seemingly pivotal for temporarily reversing the fighters' major gains in the late 1970s, meaning fifteen more years of fighting until Eritrea's de facto independence was secured. Drawing upon excerpts from the first author's original book manuscript on this topic, we also suggest that the effects of Havana's and other government's denial of Cuba's involvement in suppressing the Eritrean struggle contributed to the sense of betrayal and distrust that still haunts Eritrean politics and its leadership, as well as those Eritrean liberation fighters who experienced their staunch ally turn into an ideological and material adversary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"War made the state, and the state made war" is Charles Tilly's famous dictum that has become highly influential both in comparative macrosociology and in International Relations. An extensive literature suggests that this mechanism has played a pivotal role in European processes of state formation. However, its applicability to warfare in the Global South is controversial. While some argue that the relationship remains the same, others are skeptical of the effects of the bellicist mechanism. Against the background of the debate as to whether war makes or un-makes states in the Global South, this paper examines the conditions under which wars have formative effects and result in state-making. Revisiting the war-making/state-making paradigm, I argue that the mode of economic reproduction of "wielders of coercion" determines whether war has formative effects. Wielders of coercion, or more specifically, non-state armed movements may draw on (1) rents, (2) indirect extraction, or (3) direct extraction to sustain their economic base and organize coercion. However, they institutionalize and develop into a state-like organization only when they rely on direct extraction. To support these claims, I conduct a plausibility probe drawing on evidence from highly successful armed insurgencies: Eritrea's EPLF, Somaliland's SNM, and Namibia's SWAPO. In sum, the bellicist relationship remains valid for the Global South, even if the conditions under which war makes states are rare. A more nuanced reading of the bellicist theory improves our understanding of the dynamics of state formation and decay in the post-colonial world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On July 9, 2018 Ethiopia and Eritrea signed a Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship. On July 17, 2018 Ethiopia announced plans for landlocked Ethiopia to use Eritrea's port of Assab. Ethiopia's proposed use of Assab has implications for the indigenous Afar people who have lived in the port area for two thousand years. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the situation of Human Rights in Eritrea and the United Nations Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea found that Eritrea engaged in widespread persecution of the Afar people, including evicting them from the port area of Assab without any compensation. Both UN entities found that this persecution amounted to crimes against humanity. This paper considers the legal consequences for Ethiopia and Ethiopian officials if they use the Assab port area taken from the Afar by criminal means: will they be involving themselves in Eritrea's crimes? The paper then considers alternative arrangements from the perspective of where the interests of Ethiopia, Eritrea and the Afar are anticipated to converge. It concludes with proposals to resolve the present untenable situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food security is about ensuring that all people at all times have both physical and economic access to the basic food they need. In a number of African countries chronic malnutrition and transitory food insecurity are pervasive. Like most African countries, Eritrea is also a victim of the problem of food insecurity. Based on this historical and recurrent food insecurity in Eritrea, an attempt is made in this paper to assess the possible causes of food insecurity in the country. Furthermore, the paper captures the available food security policy proposals of Eritrea and eventually draws conclusions and extends possible recommendations and policy remedies suited to the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how Eritrean refugees in Israel and civil society organisations who engage with refugee issues contest the exclusionary politics of asylum in Israel. It presents various acts of claims-making initiated by Eritrean refugees themselves or in response to hostility by others, as well as acts inaugurated by Israeli civil society organisations on behalf of or with refugee populations. Drawing on the concept of activist acts of citizenship developed by Engin Isin, the paper subsequently analyses to what degree those acts have redefined aspects of social and political membership for Eritrean refugees in Israel. In a further step, it shows the limitations of such acts in terms of developing a solidaristic refugee-citizen agenda that profoundly challenges hegemonic public discourse and political debate. The paper concludes by arguing that activist acts of citizenship are best studied in relation to the transformative power they may have on the various individuals engaging in them, but not as a strategy for a wider politics of resistance, as ultimately nation state politics continue to determine the actual realisation of concrete rights. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In issuing and circulating a litany of documents, organisations produce statements with important textual and material qualities and affects. While a discursive analysis focuses on the former, interrogating how language is used, this paper propounds the need to explore the physicality of these objects too and adopts several heuristic devices to do so. First, it outlines how the issuance of certain documents within the refugee regime suppresses within a 'black box' the supporting and competing narratives that resulted in their genesis. Second, and relatedly, it considers why particular announcements are capable of catalysing responses that outlive their authors' finite intentions. Tracing the genealogy of these documents is thus argued to be critical for explaining the persistent and yet unpredictable influence of ideas, interests and pressures on institutional conduct, even long after their proponents have changed tack. By illustrating why greater attention should be paid to the ways that material objects can come to shape organisational behaviour, in this case legal texts, this article complements existing theoretical frameworks used to explain UNHCR's conduct. This helps explain how, when and why non-legally binding declarations nonetheless came to bind UNHCR's actions as it attempted to cancel the status of Eritrean refugees in 2002. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the prevailing higher education environment in Eritrea as a case study, with the aim of identifying factors influencing knowledge sharing and collaboration in the community both within and across the institutions. The research is based on qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with seven respondents: leaders and senior academicians representing all six higher education institutions (HEIs) in Eritrea. It investigates the environment from the socio-technical systems perspective with a holistic view of the institutional system rather than sub-systems. The results show that the HEIs have considerable levels of underutilized technology tools available in the community, and institutional guidelines to promote collaboration. However, the realities on ground show several challenges requiring coherence between the social and technical factors. This research, therefore, justifies the need to use the advanced capabilities of technologies to also augment non-technical factors for a unifying systemic solution to promote knowledge sharing at institutional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes how shifting identities enforce tactics for peacebuilding in the borderland. The Ethiopia and Eritrea 1998-2000 border war harbored social implications for the Irob, a community straddled in the borderland. The cessation of hostilities that transpired after international interventions for political mediation mandated negotiations of everyday life in Irob, to survive the subsequent cold war. An internalized hatred toward the Eritrean army, who invaded and desecrated Irob, enforced a shift in their identity to fit the Ethiopian post-war political configurations. Additionally, historically porous borders were hampered, forcing the Irob to use indigenous knowledge to secure their livelihood. A continuous process of interpretation of the socioeconomic and political standing created a space where indigenous tools of peacebuilding ensured the survival of the community. However, the academic conceptualization of peace, as a stale destination antithetic to war, and borderlands as a conjunction of ideational and literal conflicts leave no space to analyze indigenous processes of peacebuilding. This research unpacks the dynamic role of peacebuilding in the border, critically analyzing the borderland community's negotiations of everyday life, managing violence and peace. It sheds light on local notions of peace and contributes to the debate of peacebuilding as a continuous process, intermingling with shifts of identity and selfhood. This study relied on secondary ethnographic accounts gathered through the archives of the Irob diaspora websites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Unaccompanied refugee minors (URMs) are known to be subjected to several potentially traumatic life events, risking more mental health problems than other populations of same age. Evidence concerning the mental health of Eritrean URMs in Ethiopia is scarce. This paper aims to present an estimate of probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) within this group and describes its associations with traumatic life events and participants' characteristics. Design/methodology/approach: This cross-sectional quantitative study surveyed a random sample of 384 Eritrean URMs, aged 12–17 years, in the Shimelba refugee camp. The Stressful Life Events (SLE) questionnaire and the Reactions of Adolescents to Traumatic Stress (RATS) questionnaire were used to assess traumatic events and PTSD symptoms, respectively. Descriptive statistics, the chi-square test with the odds-ratio and stepwise regression were used to analyze data. Findings: Large proportions of the URMs had experienced traumatic events including physical abuse (261, 68%), separation from family against will (240, 62.5%), a stressful life event in which they were in danger (198, 51.6%), and important changes in family life (196, 51%). About 38% of the URMs met the criteria for classifying probable PTSD diagnosis, suggesting that they are likely to have PTSD. The odds-ratio statistic revealed that girls and the oldest age group (15–17 years) were at a greater risk for PTSD. The total score on the SLE appeared to be the robust predictor, explaining 28% of the variance in RATS total scores. Research limitations/implications: Self-report questionnaires used in this study yield less diagnostic information than extensive interviews. Additional information should be collected from the viewpoint of significant adults (caregivers/ teachers). Such information would be crucial in assessing the degree of impairment in daily functioning and the severity of the symptoms. Originality/value: Awareness of the stressful experiences and the mental health status of the URMs has implications for taking preventive and curative measures to provide a broad range of intervention programs and psychosocial support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relations between mobility and immobility, as well as between the spatial dynamics of migration and obstacles to mobility, are at the core of current debates in the fields of migration and border studies. This paper contributes an investigation into how different mobility regimes intersect with migrants' life stories. The analysis draws on ethnographic research carried out in Mekelle (an Ethiopian city near the border with Eritrea), where different migratory trajectories and mobility regimes overlap. Mekelle is a place of arrival and return for Eritrean refugees and Ethiopian returnees, and is also a space of transit and departure for the migratory flows towards the Global North. By describing migrants' manipulation of legal labels (to navigate their present lives in transit, and to plan their ways ahead to the desired destinations) the paper shows how borders are not only obstacles, but also can be used as resources for mobility. It is argued that these uses, should not be considered merely unlawful but activities entangled in complex social, emotional and political worlds and moral economies. From these insights, this paper questions static interpretations of mobility, shedding light on the intertwining of symbolic boundaries and legal labels in migratory trajectories, and cautioning against the use of concepts such as forced migration, refuge, transit migration and return migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose Thousands of Eritrean youth flee due to extreme domestic discontent with Eritrean Government. Little research has been done on Eritrean refugees in Ethiopia. The purpose of this paper is to explore the difficulties facing Eritrean refugees in the Shimelba Refugee Camp in northern Ethiopia. The study explores the refugees’ pre-migration experiences as well as their life difficulties in the refugee camp.Design/methodology/approach This study employed a cross-sectional qualitative approach. Relevant data were collected through personal interviews with a sample of 15 refugees. The study was also supplemented by the researcher’s personal observations regarding the living conditions of the refugees in the camp.Findings Gross human rights violations at home forced the Eritreans to flee in to Ethiopia. Refugees reported their experiences of arrest, torture, and abuse, due to their dissenting political and religious opinions. Moreover, they fled Eritrea to escape harsh compulsory conscription into the Eritrean military service. Unemployment and lack of income were also important push factors. Factors identified as threats to the psychosocial health of refugees at the refugee camp include the feeling of isolation, the absolute uncertainty of the future, fears concerning the safety of the family left behind, the strictness of the structure within the camp, and the fear of health-related problems associated with the limited health care facilities.Research limitations/implications Further research investigating the mental health problems of the refugees employing quantitative methods is needed. Also, research about the potential avenues for ameliorating the challenges faced by these refugees is desirable.Originality/value This paper gives an insight to the situation of Eritrean refugees in Ethiopia, which includes the reasons why they flee Eritrea, their experiences during flight, and the conditions in which Eritrean refugees live in the camp from the point of view of the refugees themselves. Understanding the challenges facing the refugees has implications for how short- and long-term policies can be altered to better serve them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is designed to provide an overview of the historical and contemporary relations between Ethiopia and Eritrea as well as to examine the recent geopolitical situation and the perception of local people in Ethiopia. This paper is mainly based on secondary data analysis of the available secondary information and news reports, online articles, academic literature, interviews and discussions. The Ethio-Eritrea war brought political, economic and social security threats to the Horn of Africa. Although the economy in Ethiopia is at the developing stage, recent protests have shaken the country to its core. Since 2015, anti-government protests have been triggered over freedom of the press, land rights, under-represented seats in the coalition parties, and horizontal inequality in economic, political and social affairs among ethnic groups across the country. In this study, it is established that the unrestrained political circumstance of the current regime has created dissension and violence among the public, and thus led to escalating political, economic and security crises in Ethiopia. If this issue is not rectified quickly, the peace in the country may be jeopardised. Another issue is that although Ethiopia-Eritrea rapprochement is appreciated, the agreement between both leaders and their foreign policy orientation is still unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The migration over the Mediterranean has become one of the deadliest sea voyages in last few years. The NGO Open Arms works in the area since 2015, with the objectives of protecting and reporting human rights at sea. This paper aims to give an overview on characteristics and health conditions of rescued people by the NGO in the Central Mediterranean. Methods: A descriptive retrospective population study was conducted, including people who were rescued from distress at sea by the NGO Open Arms from 1st July 2016 to 31st December 2018. Results: In this period of time 22,234 people were rescued from sea. Among them 2234 (22.7%) were minors, and 177 (0.8%) pregnant women. The most frequent countries of origin were Nigeria (1278–13.1%), Eritrea (1215–12.3%) and Bangladesh (981–9.9%). Among all people rescued, 4516 (20.3%) reported symptoms. Scabies was the most frequent pathology, being suspected in 1817 (8.2%) people. Other infectious diseases were diagnosed in 91 (0.4%). Thirty-five (0.16%) patients suffered some complication from their chronic diseases. Acute injuries due to trauma, burns, aggressions, and bullet or bladed weapon wound were reported in 135 (0.6%) cases. Seventy-four corpses were recovered. Conclusions: Main diagnoses on board were directly related to the precarious living conditions through migratory route, violence and complications of chronic diseases due to lack of care. The large number of people rescued highlights the catastrophic effect on migrants' health of European policies, which overlap the desire to restrict migratory movements on the humanitarian and health issues. An integrated information system and a coordinated response are basic to improve the situation in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the role of education in nation‐building in postcolonial Africa. The postcolonial African nationalist leaders faced formidable challenges in building new nations out of disparate ethnic, religious, cultural, and linguistic groups, particularly as regards the two intimately related processes of deconstruction and construction. While deconstruction entailed dismantling the structures, institutions, and power relations of the colonial period, construction entailed replacing them with relevant national institutions, structures, authorities, and mechanisms. Education was to advance the process of construction and transformation as a pedagogical instrument for cultivating a national identity by fostering integration and cohesion. One of the nationalist leaders' biggest mistakes, however, was to adopt a homogenizing strategy of nation‐building. The paper subscribes to the conception of heterogeneity as a nation‐building strategy, where ethnic and civic (sub‐national and national) layers constitute the nation. The overall focus of the article is a conceptual and theoretical analysis of the nexus between education and nation‐building in postcolonial Africa. The central argument is that education plays a decisive role in nation‐building in Africa. Eritrea is selected as an empirical case study to advance this argument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Proverbs have been used in language teaching for centuries. Nowadays, language learners associate mastery of this traditionally oral genre to a certain level of fluency and regard it as an access key to a deeper understanding of the native speakers' culture. The recently released Tǝgrǝñña coursebook Let's Speak Tigrinya (2018) contains almost fifty proverbs, and provides students with an insight into this old and rich tradition. However, owing to the lack of commentary or translation, the paper here seeks to compensate for this deficiency. In comparison with several Tǝgrǝñña proverb collections, it becomes apparent that the expressions listed in the textbook are common in Eritrea as well as in the Tǝgray region, in several alternative variations, some of which have been attested to in earlier European research works. A few examples even have an Amharic equivalent. The proverbs focused on here cover a wide range of both grammatical and everyday life topics and should be implemented in a more effective manner than the textbook provides. However, due to the lack of translations and occasional misprints, their accessibility is radically reduced and of little use for the individual language learner unassisted by a classroom situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the work of Bourdieu, this paper analyses how far formal education within a revolutionary setting can act as a 'strategy-generating' institution in terms of enabling women to aspire to and achieve goals they would not even have envisaged pre-revolution. In making its case, it draws on the examples of three revolutionary societies: Vietnam (since 1976), Nicaragua (1979-1990) and Eritrea (since 1991). It is argued that even though not eliminating gender as a discriminatory marker, education indeed creates room for personal emancipation. While this could equally be achieved by openings within a neo-liberal setting, a strong focus on fostering social cohesion makes educational policies in revolutionary societies different. The paper ends by arguing that revolutionary states can offer valuable lessons for education as a source of social equity. It advocates to newly consider what type of state supports what kind of education system and for what purpose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of money is an abstract of the history of civilization. Financial institutions encourage saving habit among the people by receiving deposits from the public in various forms. The Axumite kings were the first to mint coins in the African Continent. The aim of this paper is to explore the lessons learned from the different historical developments in the country and the region. The paper discusses the origin of banking system in Eritrea. It highlights the historical evolution and growth of money and banking in Eritrea during the Axumite, Italian, and the British, Ethiopian periods. It also provides the chronological development of money and banking from historical times to the post-independent Eritrea. It also deals with the existing banking institutions in the country. The paper makes an extensive use of related literature in enlightening the money and banking system in Eritrea during the historical period. It ends with summary and concluding remarks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses the encounters of second-generation Eritreans with a new generation of refugees from Eritrea in Switzerland and identifies two main types of encounter: direct personal encounters and indirect in the public discourse. It suggests that the recently arrived Eritrean refugees present a new actor within the translocal social field with whom the second-generation Eritreans have to renegotiate their relation. We argue that these encounters frame the second-generation Eritreans' positionality within the translocal social field and influence their identity and their affiliation towards Eritrea and Eritreans. We find that encounters between second-generation Eritreans and new Eritrean arrivals are crucial moments through which second-generation Eritreans form their hybrid identity. Thus, the paper contributes to the debate on identity formation of the second generation by adopting a translocal perspective and provides insights into the diversity in the Eritrean diaspora in Switzerland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the controversial discourses around the significance of the Arabic language in Eritrea. It challenges the arguments of the government and some scholars, who claim that the Arabic language is alien to Eritrean society. They argue that it was introduced as an official language under British rule and is only spoken by the Rashaida minority and by a small educated elite. By contrast, this paper demonstrates that Arabic has served as the established lingua franca among the Eritrean Muslims and as the administrative language and medium of education for centuries. The main focus of the paper is a critique of the government's post-independence language policy, which replaced Arabic as the medium of instruction by mother tongue education under the purported aim of establishing the equality of all nine Eritrean languages. I argue that the promotion of this policy has political implications and that one of its purposes is to alienate the Muslim community from the use of the Arabic language as a marker of their common identity. The article is written from a sociological perspective and draws on numerous conversations with mother tongue school teachers, students and parents, and on participant observation of the public debate. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose: In 2017, the WHO presented a framework of priorities and guiding principles to promote the health of refugees and migrants (WHO, 2017). The purpose of this paper is to analyze a crucial but understudied aspect for the implementation of this framework, namely, healthcare providers' images of refugees and their use of health services. Design/methodology/approach: A preliminary study first addresses images of refugees and their use of health services derived from the literature. This is followed by an empirical case study of antenatal and delivery service to Eritrean refugee women in Israel. The case study explores providers' (n=8) images of Eritrean women and their use of services as well as Eritrean women's (n=10) reflections on their own use of these services, examining the degree to which providers' images correspond with Eritrean women's realities. Findings: The preliminary study shows how the literature largely tends to picture refugees as medicalized and disempowered. The case study illustrates that providers of Israeli antenatal and delivery services embrace similar images, although they are more nuanced. The reflections of Eritrean women show that providers' images partially reflect their realities. However, Eritrean women attribute these images to external constraints, whereas providers attribute these images to innate characteristics of Eritrean women. Together, these findings suggest that implementation of the recently introduced WHO framework is at stake. Originality/value: This study raises awareness of a crucial but understudied aspect regarding implementation of a recently introduced universal framework for promoting the health of refugees and migrants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale is a widely used instrument for studying depression in the general population. It has been translated into several languages. Cross-cultural relevance of the construct of depression and cultural equivalence of the CES-D items used to measure it are crucial for international research on depression. Given the increasing number of refugees from Eritrea entering the USA and Europe, there is a need among health care researchers and providers for an instrument to assess depressive symptoms in the native language of this vulnerable population. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach: The study employed forward–backward translation and assessed the CES-D scale for cross-cultural research and depression screening among Tigrigna-speaking Eritrean refugees. Forward–backward translation, cognitive interview and semantic analysis were conducted to ensure equivalence of comprehension of the items and instructions between Tigrigna- and English-speaking samples. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the measurement invariance of the translated version. Findings: Translation efforts were successful as reflected by the results of semantic analysis and pilot testing. Evidence supporting the measurement invariance of data collected using the Tigrigna version of the CES-D was obtained from a sample of 253 Eritrean refugees in the USA. Practical implications: The findings of this study provide support for reliability and validity of data collected using the Tigrigna version of the CES-D scale. This important tool for assessing depression symptoms among Eritrean refugees is now available for health care providers and researchers working with this vulnerable population. Originality/value: This work is an original work of the authors and it has not been published previously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a well-recognized public health problem throughout the world. The evolution of new genetically distinct community-acquired and livestock-acquired MRSA and extended resistance to other non-β-lactams including vancomycin has only amplified the crisis. This paper presents data on the prevalence of MRSA and resistance pattern to other antibiotics on the selected specimen from two referral hospitals in Asmara, Eritrea. Method. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 130 participants recruited from two referral hospitals in Asmara, Eritrea. Isolation of S. aureus was based on culture and biochemical profiles. Standard antimicrobial disks representing multiple drug classes were subsequently set for oxacillin, gentamicin, erythromycin, and vancomycin. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 20 software. Results. S. aureus isolation rate from the 130 samples was 82 (63.1%). Patients <18 years of age were more likely to be colonized by S. aureus compared to patients above 61 years. The proportion of MRSA among the isolates was 59 (72%), methicillin-intermediate S. aureus (MISA) was 7 (8.5%), and methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) was 15 (19.5%). The isolates were mostly from the pus specimen in burn, diabetic, and surgical wound patients. Antimicrobial susceptibility test showed that 13 (15.9%) of the isolates were resistant to vancomycin, 9 (11.0%) to erythromycin, and 1 (1.2%) to gentamicin. Coresistance of MRSA isolates to some commonly used antibiotics was also noted: oxacillin/erythromycin 5 (6.1%) and oxacillin/vancomycin 9 (11%). A few isolates were resistant to oxacillin/vancomycin/erythromycin 2 (2.4%) and oxacillin/gentamicin and erythromycin 1 (1.2%). Conclusion. This study reports a relatively high prevalence of MRSA. Isolates that are resistant to other tested antibiotics including vancomycin are also reported. The data have important implication for quality of patients care in the two settings: antibiotic selection and infection control practices, and the need for additional studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of the study is to examine the environmental cost identification and usage of Eritrea marble sector and based on the findings to determine the level of effectiveness of EMA implementation for the sector. Research approach - In the study a quantitative research approach with descriptive statistical analysis was used. A questionnaire was used for collecting primary data. Questionnaire survey was undertaken in the senior staff of the available three marble organisations. The secondary source for the study was acquired from the latest audited internal documents of the organisations. Findings - Findings revealed that the sector had a significant impact on environment. Its practice on environmental-related activities and environmental management practices however was at infant stage. The sector was not able to properly identify and allocate its environmental costs. However, by minimising the challenges that impede EMA implementation, from overall results it was apparent that EMA establishment for the sector is feasible. Originality/Value - Evidences from ministry of mines and energy confirm that the study is the first in Eritrea. The study attempts to analyse the Eritrea marble sector's environmental cost identification and usage, and based on the findings to determine the level of effectiveness of EMA implementation for the sector. The paper provides important insight on EMA implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teff (Eragrostis tef) is known as a health functional food and has been gaining its popularity across the world. Teff is a staple crop and has been cultivated for thousands of years in Ethiopia and Eritrea, currently producing 90% of the world's teff. As the number of consumers are increasing, who look for an alternative to wheat flour especially for people with celiac disease, more countries are increasing teff production. People at all ages can benefit from consuming teff as it contains dietary fiber, iron, potassium, and etc. It is also helpful for people with obesity and diabetes due to its low glycemic index. Therefore, modern society pursues health-oriented thinking, and teff is expected to be in the spotlight as a good food for all ages to consume. However, information on the nutritional benefits of teff and research on food development using teff are insufficient. This review paper is a literature review, and the method is a narrative review. In addition, it is suggested that the frequency of Teff intake can be increased by presenting the introduction of foods with high nutritional value using Teff by providing basic data on nutrition and efficacy through a close investigation of Teff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]