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Leaching experiments were carried out on fresh ash samples from Popocatépetl 2012, Etna 2011 and 2012 eruptions, in order to investigate the release of compounds in both double-deionised and lake (Ohrid lake, FYR of Macedonia) waters. The experiments were carried out using different grain sizes and variable time of stirring (from 30 min to 7 days). Results were discussed in the light of changing pH and release of compounds for the different leachates. In particular, Etna samples induced alkalinisation and Popocatépetl samples induced acidification of the corresponding leachates. The release of different elements does not show correlation with time of stirring, with the measured maximum concentrations reached in the first hours of washing. General inverse correlation with grain size was observed only for Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO2-4, and Mn2+, while the other analysed elements show complex, scattering relationship with grain size. Geochemical modelling highlights leachates saturation only for F and Si, with Popocatépetl samples sometimes showing saturation in Fe. The analysed leachates are classified as undrinkable for humans on the basis of Italian laws, due to excess in F-, Mn2+, Fe, and SO2-4 (the latter only for Popocatépetl samples). Finally, the Etna 2012 and Popocatépetl leachates were used for toxicity experiments on living biota (Xenopus laevis). They are mild toxic, and no significant differences exist between the toxic profiles of the two leachates. In particular, no significant embryo mortality was observed, while even at high dilutions the leachates produced more than 20% of malformed larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the classification of images depicting the eruptive activity of Mount Etna, captured by a network of ground-based thermal cameras. The proposed approach utilizes Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), focusing on pretrained models. Eight popular pretrained neural networks underwent systematic evaluation, revealing their effectiveness in addressing the classification problem. The experimental results demonstrated that, following a retraining phase with a limited dataset, specific networks such as VGG-16 and AlexNet, achieved an impressive total accuracy of approximately 90 % . Notably, VGG-16 and AlexNet emerged as practical choices, exhibiting individual class accuracies exceeding 90 % . The case study emphasized the pivotal role of transfer learning, as attempts to solve the classification problem without pretrained networks resulted in unsatisfactory outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the successes and failures after 4 years of continuous operation of a network of sensors, communicating nodes, and gateways deployed on the Etna Volcano in Sicily since 2019, including a period of Etna intense volcanic activity that occurred in 2021 and resulted in over 60 paroxysms. It documents how the installation of gateways at medium altitude allowed for data collection from sensors up to the summit craters. Most of the sensors left on the volcanic edifice during winters and during this period of intense volcanic activity were destroyed, but the whole gateway infrastructure remained fully operational, allowing for a very fruitful new field campaign two years later, in August 2023. Our experience has shown that the best strategy for IoT deployment on very active and/or high-altitude volcanoes like Etna is to permanently install gateways in areas where they are protected both from meteorological and volcanic hazards, that is mainly at the foot of the volcanic edifice, and to deploy temporary sensors and communicating nodes in the more exposed areas during field trips or in the summer season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

HBr emissions from volcanoes lead rapidly to the formation of BrO within volcanic plumes and have an impact on tropospheric chemistry, at least at the local and regional scales. The motivation of this paper is to prepare a framework for further 3D modelling of volcanic halogen emissions in order to determine their fate within the volcanic plume and then in the atmosphere at the regional and global scales. The main aim is to evaluate the ability of the model to produce a realistic partitioning of bromine species within a grid box size typical of MOCAGE (Model Of atmospheric Chemistry At larGE scale) 3D (0.5 ∘ × 0.5 ∘). This work is based on a 1D single-column configuration of the global chemistry-transport model MOCAGE that has low enough computational cost to allow us to perform a large set of sensitivity simulations. This paper uses the emissions from the Mount Etna eruption on 10 May 2008. Several reactions are added to MOCAGE to represent the volcanic plume halogen chemistry. A simple plume parameterisation is also implemented and tested. The use of this parameterisation tends to only slightly limit the efficiency of BrO net production. Both simulations with and without the parameterisation give results for the partitioning of the bromine species, of ozone depletion and of the BrO/SO2 ratio that are consistent with previous studies. A series of test experiments were performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the results to the composition of the emissions (primary sulfate aerosols, Br radical and NO) and to the effective radius assumed for the volcanic sulfate aerosols. Simulations show that the plume chemistry is sensitive to all these parameters. We also find that the maximum altitude of the eruption changes the BrO production, which is linked to the vertical variability of the concentrations of oxidants in the background air. These sensitivity tests display changes in the bromine chemistry cycles that are generally at least as important as the plume parameterisation. Overall, the version of the MOCAGE chemistry developed for this study is suitable to produce the expected halogen chemistry in volcanic plumes during daytime and night-time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which develops a neural network (NN) approach to volcanic ash cloud detection and retrieval. The study uses multispectral infrared (IR) measurements accumulated by the MODIS at the Mt. Etna volcano in Italy during 2001, 2002 and 2006 eruptive events. It is noted that the results obtained from the NN procedure show an agreement with the results achieved by using the brightness temperature difference (BTD)-based method.

On February 6, 2023, at 01 : 17 UTC, a M = 7.8 earthquake struck the southern area of Turkey near Gaziantep town and was followed by a second earthquake of M = 7.5 at 10 : 24 UTC with the epicenter in Elbistan city. Both events were associated with the Anatolian Fault System and have claimed over 50,000 victims, as reported by the Disaster and Emergency Management Authority, and caused serious damage in the regions of southern Turkey and northern Syria. Seismic waves related to strong Turkey earthquakes have been recorded both by seismic stations throughout the globe and on other devices such as the ground deformation (GNSS, strainmeters, or tiltmeters) networks. In this paper, we show and analyze the earthquake signals recorded by bore-hole tilt stations that monitor seismic and volcanic activities at Mt. Etna. Tilt stations showed very large variations, despite their distance from the epicenter (approximately 1950 km) with a period between 10 and 25 seconds. We compared tilt and seismic data for a co–located station evidencing a very similar waveform that highlight how tiltmeters respond to translational acceleration rather than ground tilt during a teleseism, suggesting that, for waves with this period, they may behave as horizontal seismometers. By using these signals, we evidence the different behaviors of two of the most used models of tiltmeters on volcanoes (Lily and Pinnacle) and how they are useful for instrument calibration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the classification of volcanic activity into three classes, referred to as Quite, Strombolian and Paroxysm. The main purpose is to give a measure of the reliability with which such a classification, typically carried out by experts, can be performed by Machine Learning algorithms, by using the volcanic tremor as a feature. Both supervised and unsupervised methods are considered. It is experimentally shown that at least the Paroxysm activity can be reliably classified. Performances are rigorously assessed, in comparison with the classification made by expert volcanologists, in terms of popular indices such as the f1-score and the Area under the ROC curve (AuC). The work is basically a case study carried out on a dataset recorded in the area of the Mt Etna volcano. However, as volcanic tremor is a geophysical signal widely available, considered methods and strategies can be easily applied to similar volcanic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose an update of the spatial probability map for flank eruptions from Etna (Italy), based on the distribution of the flank eruptive fissures that opened in the last 4000 years. The general procedure followed is to split the fissure dataset into training and testing subsets; then we build models on the training subset under different assumptions and test them on their likelihood of the testing subset. This allows selecting objectively the best models and assumptions. Furthermore, it allows testing whether (i) unavoidable incompleteness in the mapped fissures, and (ii) possible migration through time in the location of the flank activity, have an effect on the training models that can or cannot be neglected. We used different spatial models by exploiting different Kernel functions (Exponential, Cauchy, Uniform, and Gaussian), and calculated the degree of clustering of flank fissures in the training data. The results show that neither under-recording nor possible migration in time affect significantly the informativeness of the previous flank fissures in forecasting the location of the successive ones. Our study provides a canonical map of the spatial probability for future flank eruptions at Etna based on the location of flank fissures that opened in the last 4000 years. The map confirms a preferred location along a Northeast-to-South area, corresponding to the location of the most active rifts. It also shows that the Southern flank of the volcano, which is the most urbanized one, sits downhill of the largest cumulated-probability area for flank eruption. We also run sensitivity analyses to test the effect of (i) restricting the data to the most recent 400 years, and (ii) including the information on the unclamping stress induced on the mapped fissures by sources of deformation proposed in literature for recent eruptions of Etna. The results of the sensitivity analyses confirm the main features of the canonical map, and add information on the epistemic uncertainty attached to it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At Mt. Etna volcano, flank eruptions are often accompanied by seismic swarms with damaging earthquakes; the most recent case‐history is the 2018 flank eruption, associated with a destructive earthquake (Mw 5.0). In this paper, we analyze the earthquake and eruptive catalogs from 1800 to 2018, to produce quantitative estimates of the earthquake rate under the influence of flank eruptions. We quantify that 30% of the flank eruption onsets precede a major (i.e., damaging, Ix ≥ V–VI EMS) earthquake by 30 days or less; 18% of the major earthquakes follow a flank eruption onset in 30 days or less. Thus, we show that the probability of major earthquakes increases 5–10 times after the onset of flank eruptions and this effect lasts for 30–45 days. This is also observed after the end of the eruptions. Results indicate different relationships depending on the location of the volcano‐tectonic systems considered individually (eruptive fissures, seismogenic faults). For instance, we describe a 10–20 times increased probability of earthquakes for 65–70 days after eruptions on the northeastern flank, and of new flank eruptions for 45–70 days after earthquakes of the Pernicana fault. Plain Language Summary: Historically, the flank eruptions of Mt. Etna have often been accompanied by destructive seismic events, although strong earthquakes have occurred during periods of volcanic quiescence too. As a result, the impact of both phenomena on local communities and territory is given by an alternation of two different hazards but still linked to each other. In this paper, by considering the up‐to‐date historical catalogs of earthquakes and eruptions at Mt. Etna, we quantify how probable it is, if compared to the average pattern, to have an earthquake temporally related to a flank eruption. That is, 30% of the flank eruption onsets precede a damaging earthquake by 30 days or less; the probability of strong earthquakes increases 5–10 times after the onset of flank eruptions and this effect lasts for 30–45 days. Thus, we show that the probability of damaging earthquakes drastically increases after the onset of flank eruptions and this effect lasts for several weeks. This is also observed after the end of the eruptions. Results provide the quantitative basis for a multihazard assessment that may enable better operative decisions to face future eruptive crises at Mt. Etna. Key Points: Flank eruptions at Mt. Etna are statistically compatible with Poisson processes with "slowly varying" rateThe major earthquakes and flank eruptions at Mt. Etna are not independentThe probability of major earthquakes increases by 5–10 times for 30–45 days after the onset and the end of a flank eruption [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial intelligence is widely spreading in all modern technologies. Such a very powerful methodology can have important applications in radio astronomy technology, for instance, in the new DBBC4 VLBI backend development project and in the low frequency array AntArr under development on the Etna slopes in Italy. In the present paper, we describe the method currently adopted for those projects and some possible applications, which could provide substantial new features in this decade to the radio astronomy science and technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent paper by Dellong et al. does not report properly the literature on the Malta Escarpment and its tectonic activity. Moreover, the published set of data allows an alternative interpretation of one of their refraction profiles, which implies that only incipient subduction is present south of the Messina Strait, without need for well‐developed lithospheric tear faults south of Mt. Etna. Key Points: The paper of Dellong et al. does not report adequately the content of previous papers on the tectonic activity of the Malta EscarpmentIn an alternative interpretation the Calabrian units thrusted the Ionian oceanic crust, which is still attached to the Hyblean marginSubduction could be just incipient immediately south of the Messina Strait, and there may be no lithospheric tear faults south of Mt. Etna [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The detection ability of SO2 cameras has been improved effectively, while the calibration is still the main factor that limits their measurement accuracy. This paper presents a nonlinear calibration theory by considering the effect of light dilution due to the path radiance as well as the dependence of plume aerosol on scattering wavelength. This new spectral calibration method is used to retrieve the SO2 column density and emission rate of the Etna volcano. Results show that, compared with the DOAS calibration approach, the inversion error can be reduced by 13% if the new spectral calibration is adopted. The superiority of the proposed method will become more obvious for long-distance detection of optically thick plumes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The method of 're-treading' the fieldwork of past geologists is analogous to the method of 're-staging' historically significant laboratory experiments. Neither provides any short cut to scientific or historical truth, nor grounds for celebrating or condemning the work of past scientists. Yet both can yield valuable insights into those scientists' on-the-spot thinking, their reasoning and their eventual presentation of their conclusions. As a historical research method, the 're-treading' of fieldwork has been relatively neglected, although it has many parallels with more traditional methods centred on the analysis of texts and their accompanying images. This paper summarises a few examples of 're-treading', drawn from the author's published research on fieldwork by European geologists in the decades around 1800; but the methods described here can be, and deserve to be, adopted much more widely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic plume height is one the most important features of explosive activity; thus, it is a parameter of interest for volcanic monitoring that can be retrieved using different remote sensing techniques. Among them, calibrated visible cameras have demonstrated to be a promising alternative during daylight hours, mainly due to their low cost and low uncertainty in the results. However, currently these measurements are generally not fully automatic. In this paper, we present a new, interactive, open-source MATLAB tool, named 'Plume Height Analyzer' (PHA), which is able to analyze images and videos of explosive eruptions derived from visible cameras, with the objective of automatically identifying the temporal evolution of eruption columns. PHA is a self-customizing tool, i.e., before operational use, the user must perform an iterative calibration procedure based on the analysis of images of previous eruptions of the volcanic system of interest, under different eruptive, atmospheric and illumination conditions. The images used for the calibration step allow the computation of ad hoc expressions to set the model parameters used to recognize the volcanic plume in new images, which are controlled by their individual characteristics. Thereby, the number of frames used in the calibration procedure will control the goodness of the model to analyze new videos/images and the range of eruption, atmospheric, and illumination conditions for which the program will return reliable results. This also allows improvement of the performance of the program as new data become available for the calibration, for which PHA includes ad hoc routines. PHA has been tested on a wide set of videos from recent explosive activity at Mt. Etna, in Italy, and may represent a first approximation toward a real-time analysis of column height using visible cameras on erupting volcanoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green transformation of the built environment is aimed at improving sustainability and can be supported by digitalization, which has become a significant tool to support the supply, integration, and management of information throughout the construction life cycle. In addition, climate change highly affects human comfort in the built environment and different strategies should be evaluated for adapting cities. This paper developed a digital workflow by integrating existing tools (i.e., Grasshopper, Ladybug, Honeybee, and Dragonfly) to evaluate how different green infrastructure strategies affected the thermal comfort by reducing the UTCI. The workflow was applied to a typical historical urban context (Catania, South of Italy), consisting of a square surrounded by three-floor buildings. Three basic scenarios were created that depended on the pavement material used in the built environment: a black stone pavement (reference material from Mount Etna), a permeable pavement, and grass. These three scenarios were combined with different green infrastructure strategies: tree pattern on the square, green walls and green roofs on the surrounding buildings, and the integrations of all these above-mentioned strategies. The results demonstrated that the integration of different green strategies (a grass square instead of pavement, with trees, and green walls and green roofs) increased the thermal comfort by reducing the UTCI by more than 8 °C compared to the existing urban context (black stone pavement and building envelope). However, this temperature reduction was highly affected by the location of the human body into the urban context and by the evaporation rates from vegetation. The workflow developed will be useful for designers to evaluate the effectiveness of different green strategies during the early-design stage in mitigating and adapting cities to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we focus on the eruption of Mount Etna on Christmas 2018, which emitted great amounts of S O 2 from 24th to 30th December into the free troposphere. Simulations based on two different estimations of S O 2 emission fluxes are conducted with the chemistry-transport model MOCAGE in order to study the impact of these estimations on the volcanic plume modeling. The two flux emissions used are retrieved (1) from the ground-based network FLAME, located on the flank of the volcano, and (2) from the spaceborne instrument SEVIRI onboard the geostationary satellite MSG. Multiple spaceborne observations, in the infrared and ultraviolet bands, are used to evaluate the model results. Overall, the model results match well with the plume location over the period of the eruption showing the good transport of the volcanic plume by the model, which is linked to the use of a realistic estimation of the altitude of injection of the emissions. However, there are some discrepancies in the plume concentrations of S O 2 between the two simulations, which are due to the differences between the two emission flux estimations used that are large on some of the days. These differences are linked to uncertainties in the retrieval methods and observations used to derive S O 2 volcanic fluxes. We find that the uncertainties in the satellite-retrieved column of S O 2 used for the evaluation of the simulations, linked to the instrument sensitivity and/or the retrieval algorithm, are sometimes nearly as large as the differences between the two simulations. This shows a limitation of the use of satellite retrievals of S O 2 concentrations to quantitatively validate modeled volcanic plumes. In the paper, we also discuss approaches to improve the simulation of S O 2 concentrations in volcanic plumes through model improvements and also via more advanced methods to more effectively use satellite-derived products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last two decades, the Etna volcano has undergone several sequences of lava fountaining (LF) events that have had a major impact on road conditions, infrastructure and the local population. In this paper, we consider the LF episodes occurring between 2011 and 2022, calculating their erupted volumes using the images recorded by the monitoring thermal cameras and applying a manual procedure and a dedicated software to determine the lava fountain height over time, which is necessary to obtain the erupted volume. The comparison between the results indicates the two procedures match quite well, the main differences occurring when the visibility is poor and data are interpolated. With the aim of providing insights for hazard assessment, we have fitted some probabilistic models of both the LF inter-event times and the erupted volumes of pyroclastic material. In more detail, we have tested power-law distributions against log-normal, Weibull, generalised Pareto and log-logistic. Results show that the power-law distribution is the most likely among the alternatives. This implies the lack of characteristic scales for both the inter-event time and the pyroclastic volume, which means that we have no indication as to when a new episode of LF will occur and/or how much material will be erupted. What we can reasonably say is only that short inter-event times are more frequent than long inter-event times, and that LF characterised by small volumes are more frequent than LF with high volumes. However, if the hypothesis that magma accumulates on Etna at a rate of about 0.8 m 3 s − 1   holds, the material accumulated in the source region from the beginning of the observation period (2011) to the present (2022) has already been ejected. In simple terms, there is no accumulated magma in the shallow storage that is prone to be erupted in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the online offset detection in GPS time series recorded in volcanic areas. The interest for this problem lies in the fact that an offset can indicate the opening of eruptive fissures. A Change Point Detection algorithm is applied to carry out, in an online framework, the offset detection. Experimental results show that the algorithm is able to recognize the offset generated by the Mount Etna eruption, occurred on December 24, 2018, with a delay of about 4 samples, corresponding to 40 min, compared to the best offline detection. Furthermore, analysis of the trade-off between success and false alarms is carried out and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade, video surveillance cameras have experienced a great technological advance, making capturing and processing of digital images and videos more reliable in many fields of application. Hence, video-camera-based systems appear as one of the techniques most widely used in the world for monitoring volcanoes, providing a low cost and handy tool in emergency phases, although the processing of large data volumes from continuous acquisition still represents a challenge. To make these systems more effective in cases of emergency, each pixel of the acquired images must be assigned to class labels to categorise them and to locate and segment the observable eruptive activity. This paper is focused on the detection and segmentation of volcanic ash plumes using convolutional neural networks. Two well-established architectures, the segNet and the U-Net, have been used for the processing of in situ images to validate their usability in the field of volcanology. The dataset fed into the two CNN models was acquired from in situ visible video cameras from a ground-based network (Etna_NETVIS) located on Mount Etna (Italy) during the eruptive episode of 24th December 2018, when 560 images were captured from three different stations: CATANIA-CUAD, BRONTE, and Mt. CAGLIATO. In the preprocessing phase, data labelling for computer vision was used, adding one meaningful and informative label to provide eruptive context and the appropriate input for the training of the machine-learning neural network. Methods presented in this work offer a generalised toolset for volcano monitoring to detect, segment, and track ash plume emissions. The automatic detection of plumes helps to significantly reduce the storage of useless data, starting to register and save eruptive events at the time of unrest when a volcano leaves the rest status, and the semantic segmentation allows volcanic plumes to be tracked automatically and allows geometric parameters to be calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanoes are a known source of halogens to the atmosphere. HBr volcanic emissions lead rapidly to the formation of BrO within volcanic plumes. BrO, having a longer residence time in the atmosphere than HBr, is expected to have an impact on tropospheric chemistry, at least at the local and regional scales. The objective of this paper is to prepare a framework for further 3-D modelling of volcanic halogen emissions in order to determine their fate within the volcanic plume and then in the atmosphere at the regional and global scales. This work is based on a 1-D configuration of the global chemistry transport model MOCAGE whose low computational cost allows us to perform a large set of sensitivity simulations. This paper studies the Mount Etna eruption on 10 May, 2008. Several reactions are added to MOCAGE to represent the halogen chemistry occurring within the volcanic plume. A simple sub-grid scale parameterization of the volcanic plume is also implemented and tested. The use of this parameterization tends to limit slightly the efficiency of BrO net production. Both simulations with and without the parameterization give similar results for the partitioning of the bromine species, ozone depletion and of the BrO/SO2 ratio that are consistent with previous studies and with the BrO/SO2 ratio in the volcanic plume estimated from GOME-2 spaceborne observations. A series of test experiments were performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the results to the composition of the emissions, and, in particular, primary sulphate aerosols, the Br radical, and NO. Simulations show that the plume chemistry is sensitive to these assumptions. Another series of tests on the effective radius assumed for the volcanic sulphate aerosols shows that BrO net production is sensitive to this parameter with lower BrO concentrations reached when larger aerosols (smaller total surface area) are assumed. We also find that the maximum altitude of the eruption changes the BrO production, which is linked to the vertical variability of the concentrations of oxidants. These sensitivity tests display changes in the bromine chemistry cycles that are generally at least as important as the subgrid scale plume parameterization. Overall, the version of the MOCAGE chemistry developed for this study is suitable to produce the expected halogen chemistry in volcanic plumes during daytime and night. These results will be used to guide the implementation of volcanic halogen emissions in the 3-D configuration of MOCAGE for regional and global simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Etna volcano is renowned worldwide for its extraordinary lava fountains that rise several kilometers above the vent and feed eruptive columns, then drift hundreds of kilometers away from the source. The Italian Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia-Osservatorio Etneo (INGV-OE) is responsible for the monitoring of Mt. Etna, and for this reason, has deployed a network of visible and thermal cameras around the volcano. From these cameras, INGV-OE keeps a keen eye, and is able to observe the eruptive activity, promptly advising the civil protection and aviation authorities of any changes, as well as quantifying the spread of lava flows and the extent of pyroclastic and ash plumes by using a careful analysis of the videos recorded by the monitoring cameras. However, most of the work involves analysis carried out by hand, which is necessarily approximate and time-consuming, thus limiting the usefulness of these results for a prompt hazard assessment. In addition, the start of lava fountains is often a gradual process, increasing in strength from Strombolian activity, to intermediate explosive activity, and eventually leading to sustained lava fountains. The thresholds between these different fields (Strombolian, Intermediate, and lava fountains) are not clear cut, and are often very difficult to distinguish by a manual analysis of the images. In this paper, we presented an automated routine that, when applied to thermal images and with good weather conditions, allowed us to detect (1) the starting and ending time of each lava fountain, (2) the area occupied by hot pyroclasts, (3) the elevation reached by the lava fountains over time, and (4) eventually, to calculate in real-time the erupted volume of pyroclasts, giving results close to the manual analysis but more focused on the sustained portion of the lava fountain, which is also the most dangerous. This routine can also be applied to other active volcanoes, allowing a prompt and uniform definition of the timing of the lava fountain eruptive activity, as well as the magnitude and intensity of the event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In November 2017, the China Meteorological Administration launched a new polar orbiting satellite in its Fengyun (FY) series: FY-3D. With its main purpose being the collection of meteorological data, FY-3D featured a comprehensive payload that is equally exploitable by various Earth Science disciplines. One of its sensors, the MEdium Resolution Spectral Imager-2 (MERSI-2), provides visible and infrared imagery at spatial resolutions of 250 – 1000 m. These characteristics make MERSI-2 suitable for volcanological remote sensing and make it comparable to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensors which themselves, have been widely used in volcanological applications. This paper evaluates the first clear and near-coincident MODIS – MERSI-2 images of Mount Etna (Italy) during an active volcanic phase in 2019 and in turn, provides the first assessment of MERSI-2's utility in observing volcanic activity in the Thermal InfraRed (TIR). To ensure the comparability of both scenes, data from each were converted to Land Surface Temperature (LST) and comparisons were encouraging, with an r2 of 0.92, a mean temperature discrepancy of 0.26 K and a root mean squared error of 0.75 K. Having ascertained comparability, we focussed on the absolute temperatures detected at the eruption site, with the highest being 317.3 K and 328.1 K for MODIS and MERSI-2, respectively. The 20 minute gap between the acquisitions is the most likely the cause of this temperature discrepancy, suggesting variations in lava effusion rates and activity were occurring at Mount Etna over such timescales. This study confirms the applicability of MERSI-2 for observing volcanic activity and emphasises the significance of TIR volcanic monitoring and the importance that additional spaceborne platforms might have in reducing temporal gaps between image acquisitions. Given its unique characteristics, future studies should investigate the applicability of MERSI-2 in more varied volcanic settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the dynamics of mild explosive activity is a fundamental tool for hazard assessment at open conduit volcanoes. This is a particularly critical task for Etna volcano. Etna is in fact characterized by frequent, mild explosive activity, punctuated by lava flows and paroxysmal events ('lava fountains'), which, because of their greater impact, have been the main target for hazard studies, whereas more frequent Strombolian activity has been overlooked. As a result, their impact and associated hazards have been never quantified, despite the extensive monitoring and surveillance activities carried out on this volcano. In this paper, we analyze video recordings of a sequence of Strombolian explosions occurring at the summit craters of Mt. Etna, in Italy, in February 2020. Data were also integrated with a petrographic analysis of collected samples, and drone surveys were performed at the same time as the video recordings. We estimate the frequency of explosions (20–12 per min); particle exit speeds (1–50 m/s), and erupted mass (100–102 kg) of those explosions. A very regular, small-scale activity (marked by a single burst of gas breaking the magma free surface into bombs and lapilli fragments) was occasionally punctuated by larger explosions, (at least one every 5 min), with a longer duration, fed by larger magma volumes, and consisting of two to three distinct pulses followed by a stationary phase. We found that the repose times between explosions follows a log logistic distribution, which is in agreement with the behavior of open vent explosive activity. The four largest explosions of the sequence were analyzed in detail: they emitted particles with median diameters (Mdphi) ranging from −10.1 to −8.8 phi, with bimodal distributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the De Raptu Proserpinae , Claudian refocuses the natural cycles of regeneration that color the myth of Proserpina and Ceres by placing a significant emphasis on the landscape in which his poem's events unfold: the island of Sicily. This paper argues that the focus on Sicilian landscape in the DRP makes manifest the central concerns of the poem, allowing Claudian to rearticulate the cyclical focus of his epic. Through an examination of the progression of DRP 's three extended Sicilian ekphrases, we can see how Sicily, and, specifically, the volcanic Mt. Etna as its figurative center, embodies the paradoxical cycle of destruction and renewal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A multi-rotor drone has been adapted for studies of volcanic gas plumes. This adaptation includes improved capacity for high-altitude and long-range, real-time SO2 concentration monitoring, long-range manual control, remotely activated bag sampling and plume speed measurement capability. The drone is capable of acting as a stable platform for various instrument configurations, including multi-component gas analysis system (MultiGAS) instruments for in situ measurements of SO2 , H2S , and CO2 concentrations in the gas plume and portable differential optical absorption spectrometer (MobileDOAS) instruments for spectroscopic measurement of total SO2 emission rate, remotely controlled gas sampling in bags and sampling with gas denuders for posterior analysis on the ground of isotopic composition and halogens. The platform we present was field-tested during three campaigns in Papua New Guinea: in 2016 at Tavurvur, Bagana and Ulawun volcanoes, in 2018 at Tavurvur and Langila volcanoes and in 2019 at Tavurvur and Manam volcanoes, as well as in Mt. Etna in Italy in 2017. This paper describes the drone platform and the multiple payloads, the various measurement strategies and an algorithm to correct for different response times of MultiGAS sensors. Specifically, we emphasize the need for an adaptive flight path, together with live data transmission of a plume tracer (such as SO2 concentration) to the ground station, to ensure optimal plume interception when operating beyond the visual line of sight. We present results from a comprehensive plume characterization obtained during a field deployment at Manam volcano in May 2019. The Papua New Guinea region, and particularly Manam volcano, has not been extensively studied for volcanic gases due to its remote location, inaccessible summit region and high level of volcanic activity. We demonstrate that the combination of a multi-rotor drone with modular payloads is a versatile solution to obtain the flux and composition of volcanic plumes, even for the case of a highly active volcano with a high-altitude plume such as Manam. Drone-based measurements offer a valuable solution to volcano research and monitoring applications and provide an alternative and complementary method to ground-based and direct sampling of volcanic gases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prickly pear in Italy is mostly used for human nutrition, although different cultivars of Cactaceae are intended for different uses around the world. Currently, there is a new bio‐economy for the prickly pear linked to the use of cladodes and fruit wastes for energy and numerous biotechnological derivatives. This paper focuses on the technical and economic validation of a bioenergy‐production installation, as the scientific literature has shown for years that it is possible to use the prickly pear in diets mixed with other materials. The varietal reconversion of part of the prickly pears produced domestically by traditional Italian farms geared exclusively to the production of fruit for human consumption is proposed. In this way, the introduction of biomass prickly pear varieties facilitates the construction of a shared biogas plant (organised as a district) and a network between the different actors in the area. The results show that, with the methanogenic potential of prickly pear, equal to 240 mc t−1, it is possible to feed a 300 kW plant, particularly favoured by the current system of Italian public incentives for investments in agro‐energy. This result can be achieved in a short supply chain, through the organization of a district composed of 30–40 producers, with an average size of 5 ha of prickly pears, in an area on the slopes of the Etna volcano where there is other biomass such as citrus pulp residues and olive pomace to be used in mixtures with cladodes. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the first multidisciplinary petrologic, mineralogical, and geochemical studies of the near-crater tephra discharged by the 1669 catastrophic eruption of Etna stratovolcano, Sicily. We studied the grain-size distribution, chemical and mineral-phase composition of the tephra. We determined the composition of trace elements and the composition of encapsulated lithogenic gases. Etna is classified as an intraplate volcano with a deep-seated magma chamber. Of special importance is the fact that the Etnean products were found to contain volcanogenic organoids that have phase, elemental, and isotope compositions similar to the organoids encountered in diamond-bearing products discharged by some Kamchatka volcanoes. This corroborates out earlier inference that carbonaceous abiogenesis is ubiquitous in the conditions of onshore volcanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Earth’s moon is currently an object of interest ofmany space agencies for unmanned robotic missionswithin this decade. Besides future prospects forbuilding lunar gateways as support to human spaceflight, the Moon is an attractive location for scientificpurposes. Not only will its study give insight onthe foundations of the Solar System but also itslocation, uncontaminated by the Earth’s ionosphere,represents a vantage point for the observation ofthe Sun and planetary bodies outside the SolarSystem. Lunar exploration has been traditionallyconducted by means of single-agent robotic assets,which is a limiting factor for the return of scientificmissions. The German Aerospace Center (DLR) is developing fundamental technologies towards increased autonomy of robotic explorers to fulfil more complex mission tasks through cooperation. This paper presents an overview of past, present and future activities of DLR towards highly autonomous systems for scientific missions targeting the Moon and other planetary bodies. The heritage from the Mobile Asteroid Scout (MASCOT), developed jointly by DLR and CNES and deployed on asteroid Ryugu on 3 October 2018 from JAXA’s Hayabusa2 space craft, inspired the development of novel core technologies towards higher efficiency in planetary exploration. Together with the lessons learnt from the ROBEX project (2012–2017), where a mobile robot autonomously deployed seismic sensors at a Moon analogue site, this experience is shaping the future steps towards more complex space missions. They include the development of a mobile rover for JAXA’s Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) in 2024 as well as demonstrations of novel multirobot technologies at a Moon analogue site on the volcano Mt Etna in the ARCHES project. WithinARCHES, ademonstration mission is planned from the 14 June to 10July 2021,1 during which heterogeneous teams of robots will autonomously conduct geological and mineralogical analysis experiments and deploy an array of low-frequency antennas to measure Jovian and solar bursts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents model validation results for the latest version release of the FALL3D atmospheric transport model. The code has been redesigned from scratch to incorporate different categories of species and to overcome legacy issues that precluded its preparation towards extreme-scale computing. The model validation is based on the new FALL3D-8.0 test suite, which comprises a set of four real case studies that encapsulate the major features of the model; namely, the simulation of long-range fine volcanic ash dispersal, volcanic SO 2 dispersal, tephra fallout deposits and the dispersal and deposition of radionuclides. The first two test suite cases (i.e. the June 2011 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle ash cloud and the June 2019 Raikoke SO 2 cloud) are validated against geostationary satellite retrievals and demonstrate the new FALL3D data insertion scheme. The metrics used to validate the volcanic ash and SO 2 simulations are the structure, amplitude and location (SAL) metric and the figure of merit in space (FMS). The other two test suite cases (i.e. the February 2013 Mt. Etna ash cloud and associated tephra fallout deposit, and the dispersal of radionuclides resulting from the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident) are validated with scattered ground-based observations of deposit load and local particle grain size distributions and with measurements from the Radioactivity Environmental Monitoring database. For validation of tephra deposit loads and radionuclides, we use two variants of the normalised root-mean-square error metric. We find that FALL3D-8.0 simulations initialised with data insertion consistently improve agreement with satellite retrievals at all lead times up to 48 h for both volcanic ash and SO 2 simulations. In general, SAL scores lower than 1.5 and FMS scores greater than 0.40 indicate acceptable agreement with satellite retrievals of volcanic ash and SO 2. In addition, we show very good agreement, across several orders of magnitude, between the model and observations for the 2013 Mt. Etna and 1986 Chernobyl case studies. Our results, along with the validation datasets provided in the publicly available test suite, form the basis for future improvements to FALL3D (version 8 or later) and also allow for model intercomparison studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to study the temporal variations in the seismic wavefield associated with the stress changes in the dynamic features of the Mt Etna volcanic activity. We used shear wave splitting analysis on a huge data set of local earthquakes, in order to identify changes of the local stress field at Mt Etna during the time interval from 2006 to 2011. This analysis allows us to obtain two parameters: the polarization direction of the fast shear wave (φ) and the time delay of the slow shear wave (T d,time delay between the split shear waves). Orientation of φ generally provides information about the anisotropic symmetry and stress direction whereas T d provide information about the average crack density along the ray path. Based on our findings it is possible to divide Etna Volcano in three different sectors, each one distinguished by typical fast wave polarization direction. We find that the western part of the volcano is controlled by the regional tectonic stress field having a NS and EW directions. Instead, the eastern part of the volcano is mainly controlled by the local volcanic stress, particularly an EW local stress field in the NE sector (Pernicana), and a quasi NS local stress field in the SE sector (Mascalucia, Timpe), where previous studies evidenced: (i) some low-Qp anomaly regions between 0 and about 6 km depth, probably associated with high pore pressure and the intense faulting and (ii) by magnetotelluric surveys, several high conductivity zones, up to 8 km depth, related to a diffuse presence of hydrothermal activity and fluid circulation. Temporal variations in time delay, mostly before the 2008–2009 lateral eruption, can be interpreted as stress accumulation increase with a consequent release of stress due to coalescing of microcracks in the conduit for the eruption of magma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inversion problem concerns the identification of parameters of a volcanic source causing observable changes in ground deformation data recorded in volcanic areas. In particular, this paper deals with the inversion of ground deformation measured by using SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) interferometry and an inversion approach formulated in terms of an optimization problem is proposed. Based on this inversion scheme, it is shown that the problem of inverting ground deformation data in terms of a single source, of Mogi or Okada type, is numerically well conditioned. In the paper, two case studies of inverting actual SAR data recorded on Mt. Etna during eruptions occurring in 1998 and 2001 are investigated, showing the suitability of the proposed technique [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lava tubes are powerful heat insulators, allowing lava to practically keep the initial temperature and travel longer distances than when freely flowing on the ground surface. It is thus extremely important to recognize how, when and where these structures form within a lava flow field for hazard assessment purposes, in order to plan possible interventions should a lava flow approach inhabited areas. Often being formed within thick and complex lava flow fields, lava tubes are difficult to detect, study and explore. In this study, we analyse the 1792-93 Etna lava flow field emplaced on a steep slope (>4°) which comprises several lava tubes located at different distances from the eruptive fissure, at different levels within the lava flow field, and showing various inner morphologies, with peculiar inner features related to their maturity and eruptive history. Our aim is to verify whether it is possible to connect the underground features with features observed on the lava flow surface in order to reconstruct the extension of the tube network and unravel the genetic processes. Our results show that, in the studied lava flow field, a clear correspondence is possible between shallow tubes emplaced late during the lava flow field growth and surface textures. In addition, vertical and horizontal tube capture is very widespread, and might be the primary process for lava tube persistence and long life. Our results might be applicable to other lava tubes on Earth and other rocky planets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of a controlled‐source seismic experiment performed using a vibratory source capable of producing harmonic vibrations. The survey aimed at investigating the horizontal directional amplification mechanism observed at the Pernicana Fault (Mt. Etna in Sicily, Italy) along an N150°/N330° orientation. With the vibratory source (a shaker truck) working in shear‐wave mode in the frequency range 5–40 Hz, we recorded seismic data using both three‐component velocimeters and 4.5 Hz geophones. These two types of receivers were arranged in linear configuration along two orthogonal orientations: radial and transverse to the direction of the main polarization observed within the fault zone. The two lines of seismic stations allowed us to investigate the polarization evolution as a function of the distance from the source. Results show that when the shear excitation induced by the source is parallel to the direction of observed polarization of the ground motion, the seismic signal propagates efficiently, maintaining the same horizontal polarization induced by the active source. This polarization is well recorded up to distances as large as 300 m from the source. On the contrary, when the shear excitation is orthogonal to the predominant site polarization, the ground excitation loses its initial polarization in less than 50 m away from the source position. At larger distances, the transmitted energy propagates with the natural site polarization independently from the original source polarization. The observations in terms of polarization were combined with surface‐wave analysis, aimed at investigating the dispersion characteristics of the wavefield on the geophone lines. The data suggest that the experimental Rayleigh‐wave dispersion spectra show a more coherent signal over the frequency range along the same orientation of the observed site polarization, supporting a preferential direction in the propagation of surface waves. From inversion of the Rayleigh dispersion curves, we inferred the shear‐wave velocity (Vs) to be in the range of 120–450 m/s in the first 30 m deep of Quaternary volcanic sediments. The dispersion curves are not constant along transverse and radial directions, suggesting the presence of fracture‐induced seismic anisotropy in the near surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors discuss the paper "Evolution of CO2, SO2, HCl and HNO3 in the volcanic plumes from Etna," by C. Voigt and colleagues regarding gas emissions from the eruption of Mt. Etna volcano in Italy. He explores the focus of the authors of the paper on molar ratios of carbon monoxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide ( SO2), and hydrochloric acid (HC1). He suggests that it is impossible to clearly distinguish the molar ratios of the said gases.

In this paper, a method is presented to classify volcano activity into three classes, namely quiet, strombolian, and paroxysm. The method is based on training a six-layered deep neural network (DNN) model using these signals as inputs (features): time series of the number of distances of infrasonic events, radar backscatter power, RMS of tremor in five stations close to craters of the volcano, tilt derivative, and seismic tremor source depth. The method was tested on the data related to a period of five years, and the results were concluded using indexes of precision, recall, F1 score, and Cohen's Kappa coefficient were calculated to evaluate the qualification of the classification. Also, the results were compared to Bayesian network (BN), K-nearest neighbors (KNN), and decision tree (DT) methods. Decision learning trees and KNN are popular machine learning algorithms belonging to the class of supervised learning algorithms. They mimic the human level thinking and, differing from neural networks, are not black box models. The comparisons reveal the proposed method, especially in classifying both strombolian and paroxysm classes. This advantage makes the presented method a more reliable tool for practical use in the volcano monitoring control rooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phenomenon of volcanic fallout ash from Mt. Etna in Sicily (Italy) is well known and frequent in recent years, as in the period 2001-2004. As a consequence, significant problems for the population, road, rail and air traffic and production activities have occurred. The industrial areas of Catania and Augusta-Priolo, located in south eastern Sicily, might be involved during particular weather conditions. This paper aims at determining the potential scenarios of damage to industrial facilities caused by volcanic ash fallout. The work has been focused on the study of both fixed and floating roof storage tanks, containing flammable liquids, and examines extreme failures damage causing the greatest loss of containment for these facilities. To include scenarios arising from natural phenomena (Na-Tech events) in the standard risk assessment procedure, the estimation of the vulnerability of these facilities is necessary. The study has been applied to the area surrounding Mt. Etna, and the procedure can also be extended to other case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a sensitivity analysis and procedure development for volcanic-plume sulfur dioxide and ash retrievals using ground thermal infrared camera have been carried out. The semiconductor device camera, considered as a reference, has a spectral range of 8-14 μm with noise equivalent temperature difference that is better than 100 mK at 300 K. The camera will be used to monitor and assess the hazards of Mt. Etna volcano to mitigate the risk and impact of volcanic eruptions on the civil society and transports. A minimum number of filters have been selected for sulfur dioxide (SO2) and volcanic ash retrievals. The sensitivity study has been carried out to determine the SO2 and volcanic ash minimum concentration detectable by the system varying the camera geometry and the atmospheric profiles. Results show a meaningful sensitivity increase considering high instrument altitudes and low camera-elevation angles. For all geometry configurations and monthly profiles, the sensitivity limit varies between 0.5 and 2 g · m-2 for SO2 columnar abundance and between 0.02 and 1 for ash optical depth. Two procedures to detect SO2 and ash, based on the least square fit method and on the brightness temperature difference (BTD) algorithm, respectively, have also been proposed. Results show that high concentration of atmospheric water vapor columnar content significantly reduces the ash-plume effect on the BTD. A water vapor-correction procedure introduced improves the ash retrievals and the cloud discrimination in every season, considering all the camera geometries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interpretation of geodetic data in volcanic areas is usually based on analytical deformation models. Although numerical finite element (FE) modelling allows realistic features such as topography and crustal heterogeneities to be included, the technique is not computationally convenient for solving inverse problems using classical methods. In this paper, we develop a general tool to perform inversions of geodetic data by means of 3-D FE models. The forward model is a library of numerical displacement solutions, where each entry of the library is the surface displacement due to a single stress component applied to an element of the grid. The final solution is a weighted combination of the six stress components applied to a single element-source. The pre-computed forward models are implemented in a global search algorithm, followed by an appraisal of the sampled solutions. After providing extended testing, we apply the method to model the 1993–1997 inflation phase at Mt Etna, documented by GPS and EDM measurements. We consider four different forward libraries, computed in models characterized by homogeneous/heterogeneous medium and flat/topographic free surface. Our results suggest that the elastic heterogeneities of the medium can significantly alter the position of the inferred source, while the topography has minor effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to show the feasibility of evaluating the sulphur dioxide (SO[SUB2]) flux emitted by Mt Etna volcano, using remotely sensed data of Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection radiometer (ASTER) in the thermal infrared (TIR). ASTER is one of the instruments on board the first Earth Observation System (EOS) satellite launched on 18 December 1999. To simulate the ASTER data, Multispectral Infrared and Visible Imaging Spectrometer (MIVIS) images, acquired during the 'Sicily '97' campaign, were used. The SO[SUB2] column abundance maps shown in this paper have been obtained by means of a simple algorithm based on the split-window technique. The parameters of the algorithm were computed using Moderate Resolution Atmospheric Radiance and Transmittance Model (MODTRAN) simulations performed with atmospheric profiles acquired during MIVIS flights. The mean SO[SUB2] flux on 12 and 16 June 1997, obtained using the ASTER simulated images,results in 42 and 33 kg s[SUP-1] respectively; these values are in good agreement with the results obtained by the inversion procedure used by Teggi et al. (1999) applied to the MIVIS data and with the Correlation Spectrometer (COSPEC) measurements performed during the campaign by other teams. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the model implementation and presents results of a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) for the Mt Etna volcanic region in Sicily, Italy considering local volcano-tectonic earthquakes. Working in a volcanic region presents new challenges not typically faced in more standard PSHA, which are most broadly due to the nature of the local volcano-tectonic earthquakes, the cone shape of the volcano, and the attenuation properties of seismic waves in the volcanic region. These have been accounted for through the development of a seismic source model that integrates data from different disciplines (historical and instrumental earthquake datasets, tectonic fault data, etc. presented in a companion paper Part I, Azzaro et al., 2017), and by the development and software implementation of original tools for the computation, such as a new ground-motion prediction equation and magnitude-scaling relationship specifically derived for this volcanic area, and the capability to account for the surficial topography in the hazard calculation, which influences source-to-site distances. Hazard calculations have been carried out using two widely used PSHA software packages (CRISIS, Ordaz et al., 2013; the OpenQuake-engine, Pagani et al., 2014). Results are referred to short to mid-term exposure times (10 % probability of exceedance in 5 and 30 years, Poisson and time-dependent) and spectral amplitudes of engineering interest. A preliminary exploration of the impact of site-specific response is also presented for the most densely inhabited region, and the variability in expected ground motion is finally commented. These results do not account for the M > 6 regional seismogenic sources that dominate the PSHA at long return periods, but present a different viewpoint that we believe is also relevant for retrofitting of the existing buildings, and for driving impending interventions of risk reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although magma migration is a necessary condition for the occurrence of a volcanic eruption, static analytical models for ground deformations consider stationary sources that undergo a change only in forces acting in the Earth's interior, such as changes in pressure or volume in a geometrically defined body. The variations in pressure or volume are mostly linked to the fluid dynamics or the superficializing of magma batches. Detection and tracking of magma motion in volcanic areas represent fundamental capabilities in predicting possible eruptions and therefore in reducing their associated risks. In the 3‐dimensional space, a magma migration defines a starting volume in depression and an arrival volume in overpressure. These end members can be modeled with two bonded point sources. Such a double‐point source can be considered the equivalent of a physical dipole. Here, the analytical solutions to predict ground deformations caused by a dipole source are presented and analyzed. The dipole analytical source allows modeling the effects on ground deformation of magma migration and vice versa. Estimating the magma migration from the measured ground deformation through data inversion. The dipole solution is compared with the basic volumetric source to discern its distinctive peculiarities and range of applicability. In addition, a discrepancy analysis with the equivalent numerical model was conducted to evaluate the approximation errors of the analytical model. To evaluate the practical value of the proposed model, two case studies on Sinabung volcano and Mt. Etna are presented. The analysis of continuous deformation data from GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) stations on Mt. Etna shows that a dipole source activates days before the December 2018 eruption, thus allowing the identification of the final magma rise. Plain Language Summary: Traditional analytical models for ground deformations focus on fixed sources and do not consider the possibility that magma may move, which is important for predicting volcanic eruptions. To better understand and predict eruptions, it is crucial to track magma migration. The dipole analytical source is a tool that helps model how magma movement affects ground deformation. It estimates magma migration by analyzing measured ground deformation data. This method provides information on the source's strength, location, and migration direction. Two case studies on Sinabung volcano and Mt. Etna show the practical value of the dipole source. In the Mt. Etna case, a dipole source was identified days before the December 2018 eruption, demonstrating its potential for early detection. Key Points: Analytical solutions for ground deformations caused by a dipole source are presented and analyzedThe differential dipole model can describe a movement of magma within the plumbing systemThe dipole model can be useful in identifying the magmatic rising phase that potentially anticipate an eruption [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcanic rocks are considered reliable recorders of past changes in the Earth's magnetic field. Recent flows, however, sometimes fail to produce the known magnetic field at the time of cooling. Previous research on Mt. Etna suggests paleomagnetic data might not be accurately recorded. Here we test the accuracy of paleomagnetic data obtained from Mt. Etna lavas by comparing paleomagnetic data from historical flows to direct measurements of the magnetic field above the current topography. The inclinations and intensities in both data sets are biased toward lower values, while there is no such trend for the declination. Inclinations are on average 2.9° lower than expected; intensities are on average 8.8 µT lower. The deviations from the expected values depend on the height above the flow. Moreover, the inclinations and intensities vary as a function of topography. Both are higher above ridges and lower in gullies; the variations within a site are up to 14.1° in inclination and 12.9 µT for intensity. To suppress this paleomagnetic data bias it is important to take samples several meters apart and from different parts of the flow whenever possible. While this leads to a higher degree of scatter in paleodirections, the results better represent the Earth's magnetic field at the time of cooling. This emphasizes the importance of reporting paleomagnetic sampling strategies in detail. Plain Language Summary: Paleomagnetic data from lavas is routinely used in the Earth Sciences to for example, reconstruct the past behavior of the Earth's magnetic field, or make models of past plate motions. Very young flows for which the ambient magnetic field at the time of cooling is known, however, sometimes fail to produce the known reference values. Lava flows from Mt. Etna are extensively studied in the past and the paleomagnetic data obtained does often not agree with the known magnetic field value in which the lavas cooled. Here we show that the topography of volcanic terrain may influence the magnetic signal of new, overlying, flows, and we make recommendations for sampling strategies that suppress these terrain effects as much as possible. Key Points: Paleomagnetic data from Mt. Etna does often not reproduce the known geomagnetic field wellLocal magnetic anomalies explain bias in paleomagnetic data as function of topographyOptimizing the paleomagnetic sampling strategy may suppress this bias in paleomagnetic data [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 21 May 2023, a hidden eruption occurred at the Southeast Crater (SEC) of Etna (Italy); indeed, bad weather prevented its direct and remote observation. Tephra fell toward the southwest, and two lava flows propagated along the SEC's southern and eastern flanks. The monitoring system of the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia testified to its occurrence. We analyzed the seismic and infrasound signals to constrain the temporal evolution of the fountain, which lasted about 5 h. We finally reached Etna's summit two weeks later and found an unexpected pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposit covering the southern lava flow at its middle portion. We performed unoccupied aerial system and field surveys to reconstruct in 3D the SEC, lava flows, and PDC deposits and to collect some samples. The data allowed for detailed mapping, quantification, and characterization of the products. The resulting lava flows and PDC deposit volumes were (1.54 ± 0.47) × 106 m3 and (1.30 ± 0.26) × 105 m3, respectively. We also analyzed ground-radar and satellite data to evaluate that the plume height ranges between 10 and 15 km. This work is a comprehensive analysis of the fieldwork, UAS, volcanic tremor, infrasound, radar, and satellite data. Our results increase awareness of the volcanic activity and potential dangers for visitors to Etna's summit area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geochemical monitoring of volcanic activity today relies largely on remote sensing, but the combination of this approach together with soil gas monitoring, using the appropriate parameters, is still not widely used. The main purpose of this study was to correlate data from crater gas emissions with flank emissions of soil gases at Mt. Etna volcano from June 2006 to December 2020. Crater SO2 fluxes were measured from fixed stations around the volcano using the DOAS technique and applying a modeled clear-sky spectrum. The SO2/HCl ratio in the crater plume was measured with the OP-FTIR technique from a transportable instrument, using the sun as an IR source. Soil CO2 efflux coupled with the 220Rn/222Rn activity ratio in soil gases (named SGDI) were measured at a fixed monitoring site on the east flank of Etna. All signals acquired were subject both to spectral analysis and to filtering of the periodic signals discovered. All filtered signals revealed changes that were nicely correlated both with other geophysical signals and with volcanic eruptions during the study period. Time lags between parameters were explained in terms of different modes of magma migration and storage inside the volcano before eruptions. A comprehensive dynamic degassing model is presented that allows for a better understanding of magma dynamics in an open-conduit volcano. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An innovative mobile lidar device, developed to monitor volcanic plumes during explosive eruptions at Mt. Etna (Italy) and to analyse the optical properties of volcanic particles, was upgraded in October 2023 with the aim of improving volcanic plume retrievals. The new configuration of the lidar allows it to obtain new data on both the optical and the microphysical properties of the atmospheric aerosol. In fact, after the upgrade, the lidar is able to measure three backscattering coefficients, two extinction coefficients and two depolarisation ratios in a configuration defined as "state-of-the-art lidar", where properties such as particle size distribution and the refractive index can be derived. During the lidar implementation, we were able to test the system's performance through specific calibration measurements. A comparison in an aerosol-free region (7.2–12 km) between lidar signals at 1064 nm, 532 nm and 355 nm and the corresponding pure molecular profiles showed a relative difference of <1% between them for all the wavelengths, highlighting the good dynamic of the signals. The overlap correction allowed us to reduce the underestimation of the backscattering coefficient from 50% to 10% below 450 m and 750 m at both 355 and 532 nm, respectively. The correct alignment between the laser beam and the receiver optical chain was tested using the signal received from the different quadrants of the telescope, and the relative differences between the four directions were comparable to zero, within the margin of error. Finally, the first measurement results are shown and compared with results obtained by other instruments, with the aim of proving the ability of the upgraded system to more precisely characterise aerosol optical and microphysical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground-based infrared cameras can be used effectively and safely to provide quantitative information about small to moderate-sized volcanic eruptions. This study describes an infrared camera that has been used to measure emissions from the Mt. Etna and Stromboli (Sicily, Italy) volcanoes. The camera provides calibrated brightness temperature images in a broadband (8–14 µm) channel that is used to determine height, plume ascent rate and volcanic cloud/plume temperature and emissivity at temporal sampling rates of up to 1 Hz. The camera can be operated in the field using a portable battery and includes a microprocessor, data storage and WiFi. The processing and analyses of the data are described with examples from the field experiments. The updraft speeds of the small eruptions at Stromboli are found to decay with a timescale of ∼10 min and the volcanic plumes reach thermal equilibrium within ∼2 min. A strong eruption of Mt. Etna on 1 April 2021 was found to reach ∼9 km, with ascent speeds of 10–20 ms−1. The plume, mostly composed of the gases CO2, water vapour and SO2, became bent over by the prevailing winds at high levels, demonstrating the need for multiple cameras to accurately infer plume heights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A multi-copter drone has been adapted for studies of volcanic gas plumes. This adaptation includes improved capacity for high altitude and long range, real-time SO2 concentration monitoring, long range manual control, remotely-activated bag sampling, and plume speed measurement capability. The drone is capable of acting as a stable platform for various instrument configurations including: MultiGAS instruments for in-situ measurements of SO2, H2S, CO2 and H2O concentrations in the gas plume, MobileDOAS instruments for spectroscopic measurement of total SO2 emission rate, remotely-controlled gas sampling in bags and sampling with gas denuders for posterior analysis on the ground of isotopic composition and halogens. The platform we present has been field-tested during three campaigns in Papua New Guinea: in 2016 at Tavurvur, Bagana and Ulawun volcanoes, in 2018 at Tavurvur and Langila volcanoes and in 2019 at Tavurvur and Manam volcanoes; as well as in Mt. Etna in Italy in 2017. This paper describes the drone platform and the multiple payloads, the various measurement strategies, an algorithm to correct for different time-responses of MultiGAS sensors. Specifically, we emphasise the need for an adaptive flight path, together with live data transmission of a plume tracer (such as SO2 concentration) to the ground station, to ensure optimal plume interception when operating beyond visual line of sight. We present results from a comprehensive plume characterization obtained during a field deployment at Manam volcano in May 2019. The Papua New Guinea region, and particularly Manam volcano, has not been extensively studied for volcanic gases due to its remote location, inaccessible summit region and high level of volcanic activity. We demonstrate that the combination of a multi-rotor with modular payloads is a versatile solution to obtain the flux and composition of volcanic plumes, even for the case of a highly active volcano with a high-altitude plume such as Manam. Drone-based measurements offer a valuable solution to volcano research and monitoring applications, and provide an alternative and complementary method to ground-based and direct sampling of volcanic gases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present new data from 226 Ra– 230 Th dating and archaeomagnetism with the aim of improving the knowledge of the flank eruptions that occurred at Mt Etna during the Greek–Roman and Early Medieval periods, as defined in the new geological map of the volcano. The combination of the two dating techniques demonstrates that three major flank eruptions occurred on the lower north and west flanks during Greek–Roman epochs, producing large scoria cones and extensive lava flows. In particular, the Mt Ruvolo and Mt Minardo events highly impacted the territory of the west flank, notably by damming the Simeto River. The new data of the Millicucco and Due Monti lava flows, on the lower north–east flank, indicate a younger age than their stratigraphic ages quoted in the 2011 geological map, since they occurred around 700 and 500 AD, respectively. None of the large flank eruptions occurring on the lower slopes of Etna during the Early Medieval age are reported in the historical sources. Overall, our paper shows that a comprehensive assessment of eruptions at Mount Etna in the last three millennia can only be achieved through a multidisciplinary approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new approach in dealing with seismic risk in the volcanic areas of Italy, by taking into account the possible occurrence of damaging pre- or syn-eruptive seismic events, is exciting the scientific interest and is actually the topic developed in several research projects funded by the European Community (e.g., UPStrat-MAFA, ) and the Civil Defense Department of Italy. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to have a detailed knowledge of the local attenuation-distance relations. In the present paper, we make a survey of the estimates of the seismic quality factor of the medium reported in literature for the Etna area. In the framework of a similar paper published for the Campi Flegrei zone in Southern Italy, we first review the results on seismic attenuation already obtained for Etna and then apply a standard technique to separately measure intrinsic and scattering attenuation coefficients from passive seismic data recorded by the Etna seismological network. Indications are then given for the correct utilization of the attenuation parameters to obtain the best candidate quality factor Q to be used in this area for seismic risk purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]