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Notwithstanding the improvement in gender equality in political power and resources in European democracies, this study shows that, on average, declared interest in politics is 16 per cent lower for women than for men in Europe. This gap remains even after controlling for differences in men's and women's educational attainment, material and cognitive resources. Drawing on the newly developed European Institute for Gender Equality's (EIGE) Gender Equality Index (GEI) and on the European Social Survey (ESS) fifth wave, we show that promoting gender equality contributes towards narrowing the magnitude of the differences in political interest between men and women. However, this effect appears to be conditioned by the age of citizens. More specifically, findings show that in Europe gender-friendly policies contribute to bridging the gender gap in political engagement only during adulthood, suggesting that childhood socialisation is more strongly affected by traditional family values than by policies promoting gender equality. In contrast, feminising social citizenship does make a difference by reducing the situational disadvantages traditionally faced by women within the family and in society for middle-aged people and older. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Research has shown that individual-level characteristics such as socioeconomic status and political interest are becoming more important as predictors of news consumption in a rapidly changing media environment. Despite this general trend, this article argues that the importance of individual-level predictors of news consumption varies between national media environments. We use extensive survey data from 16 European countries and multilevel modeling in order to investigate both contextual-level and cross-level effects on news consumption. The results show that media environment characteristics have additional effects on news consumption beyond the effects of individual-level characteristics such as education and political interest, but also moderating impacts on these individual-level predictors of news consumption. More specifically, national media environments characterized by higher levels of newspaper-centrism are related to smaller gaps in newspaper reading between those with high and low levels of education and political interest. Lower degrees of newspaper-centrism are, on the other hand, related to a weaker 'lower-class bias' of television news and larger gaps in news consumption between those with and without high political interest. These findings are discussed in light of previous research on news consumption, knowledge, and participation gaps as well as cross-national comparative research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current wave of interest in Arctic affairs has struck with startling speed and remarkable force. Fueled by the writings of pundits asking provocative questions (e.g., “who owns the Arctic?”), this wave has now captured the attention of policymakers and begun to trigger policy responses (e.g., the May 2008 Ilulissat Declaration from the five Arctic coastal states). This article examines these developments from the perspective of governance, raising questions about underlying drivers, the identity of relevant stakeholders, the framing of issues for consideration in policy settings, and the extent to which a new regime for the Arctic Ocean or an even more ambitious legally binding convention or treaty for the whole Arctic region is needed. The general conclusion is that many proposals on offer in this realm are simplistic but that there is a strong case for taking a number of pragmatic steps to address specific problems of governance in the far North during an era of rapid change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyses the conception of legitimate expectations, also the genesis and development of this principle and its relations with other principles of administrative law. The article consists of the introduction, four main parts and conclusions. In the first part of the article the conception and the development of the principle of legitimate expectations is discussed. The principle of legitimate expectations originates from the German public law and is known as the principle of "Vertrauensschutz". In the period between 1970 and 1980 years the Court of Justice of the European Communities began to apply this principle in its legal practice. The principle of legitimate expectations protects the interests of the persons, who are entitled by legal system to expect certain results, in case they act legally. The second part of the article reveals the links of the principle of legitimate expectations with other fundamental principles: the principle of the rule of law, the principle of proportionality, the principle of the legal certainty. The problems, which occur harmonizing the principle of the protection of legal expectations and the principle of nondiscrimination, are revealed. The third part of the article presents the development of the doctrine of the principle of the legitimate expectations in the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Communities. The selection of situations, when the expectations of a person are considered legitimate and justifiable, is made. Also the circumstances, which can influence the rise of legitimate expectations, are indicated. The situations, when the expectations of a person are not acknowledged as legitimate, are presented. The fourth part of the article discusses the models of the protection of legitimate expectations, they are: procedural protection of legitimate expectations; substantive protection of legitimate expectations; compensatory protection of legitimate expectations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the usage of Europe by professional intermediators and the mechanisms of the indicated usage. It explores the effect of the European factor on the interests, which have been organized as domestic. It aims to understand the changes as well as development of new structures and identification strategies of agricultural interest groups in Central Europe. It cites the concept of national, transnational, and supranational strategies. It also indicates the modalities of interest group in European Union candidate countries through agricultural policy.

This chapter presents the development of European youth research as a distinctive field of study. It draws attention to the sociopolitical context in which the field has emerged, outlines the key dimensions of the field's agenda, reports on significant facets of theory and research development to date, and briefly considers the field's methodological and professional challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AIRNET was a thematic network project (2002–2004) initiated to stimulate the interaction between researchers in air pollution and health in Europe. As part of AIRNET's communication strategy, a standardized workshop model was developed to organize national meetings on air pollution and health (AIRNET network days). Emphasis was given to tailor the national workshop information and related activities to the specific needs of a wider range of stakeholders (e.g., policy makers, nongovernmental organizations, industry representatives). In this report we present an overview of the results of four workshops held in western, northern, central/eastern, and southern regions of Europe in 2004. Overall, workshop experiences indicated that by actively involving participants in the planning of each meeting, AIRNET helped create an event that addressed participants' needs and interests. A wide range of communication formats used to discuss air pollution and health also helped stimulate active interaction among participants. Overall, the national workshops held by AIRNET offered a way to improve communication among the different stakeholders. Because a broad stakeholder involvement in decision making can positively affect the development of widely supported policies, such meetings should be continued for Europe and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article contends that homogenisation of the term ‘self-interest’– in sociological and economic discourse – has resulted in many misconceptions about what particular doctrines of ‘self-interest’ were instituted to achieve at certain historical periods and in specific cultural milieux. At its worst, the article argues, this has led to a misunderstanding of the import of particular doctrines of self interest,which are read in terms of general tradition – such as that which views self-interested conduct as a natural faculty – rather than in terms of the context specific aims of those advocating them. The article attempts to show how, historically, there have been quite significant changes in the characterisation of the ‘self’ deemed to be ‘self-interested’. In particular, it focuses on the ‘self’ of certain early modern conceptions of self interest, and suggests this creation is best viewed not as a subjectivity transcendentally presupposed by experience, but as one historically cultivated to counter the exigencies of particular circumstances – the disaster of perpetual ‘warre’ in 17th century Europe – and to meet the purposes of a certain way of life – existence in the civitas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This ankle explores the question of public loyalty and the E.C. It is argued that public loyalty cannot be stimulated along the lines suggested by the Functionalists. Some of the weaknesses of Functionalist premises arc discussed. It is argued that the concept of loyalty transfers' has led to macro-level loyalty being regarded as indivisible and transferable only on a zero-sum basis: but that it would be more instructive to regard such loyalty as a divisible entity. Before public loyalty towards the EL can be generated, the relationship between the utilitarian and affective-identitive components of loyalty must be better understood. The EU. must also be made more visible, tangible, and intelligible for citizens if they are to become aware of it, and if their interest in owing allegiance to it is to be stimulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the currency crisis in Europe which was mainly caused by the German Bundesbank which set an interest rate at 9 and 1/2 percent. Investors around the world sought to buy German marks and deposit it in German banks for higher interest. The price of the German mark rose fast so traders had difficulty to buy German currency and the price of other currencies in Europe related to dollar also rose. Germany increased the interest rate inside Germany to discourage demand. Currency reductions in Europe were crucial for Europe currencies because they depend mainly on imports. Reduction raises prices of foreign goods and bringing high costs and rising prices.