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Spectrum auctions have recently experienced increased sophistication in the allocation of multi-band frequencies, with efficiency issues becoming much more complex in such scenarios. This empirical analysis seeks to identify the drivers of auction prices associated with 4G and 5G technologies in seven European countries during the period 2008–2019. This study draws on a purpose-built dataset including auction design, spectrum frequency bands at auction, bandwidth supplied to mobile operators, and characteristics of the market structure. We use panel data techniques to identify the main determinants of European spectrum auction prices in the presence of substitutability and complementarities exhibited by the preferences in multi-band spectrum markets. In this regard, we find that mobile operators pay lower auction prices if there are alternative frequency bands used for previous mobile standards and that operators perceive as substitutes. Furthermore, auction prices are higher in more concentrated markets, when more licenses are auctioned and when the CCA format is used (possibly due to the existence of complementarities). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need to optimize the deployment and maintenance costs for service delivery in wireless networks is an essential task for each service provider. The goal of this paper was to optimize the number of service centres (gNodeB) to cover selected customer locations based on the given requirements. This optimization need is especially emerging in emerging 5G and beyond cellular systems that are characterized by a large number of simultaneously connected devices, which is typically difficult to handle by the existing wireless systems. Currently, the network infrastructure planning tools used in the industry include Atoll Radio Planning Tool, RadioPlanner and others. These tools do not provide an automatic selection of a deployment position for specific gNodeB nodes in a given area with defined requirements. To design a network with those tools, a great deal of manual tasks that could be reduced by more sophisticated solutions are required. For that reason, our goal here and our main contribution of this paper were the development of new mathematical models that fit the currently emerging scenarios of wireless network deployment and maintenance. Next, we also provide the design and implementation of a verification methodology for these models through provided simulations. For the performance evaluation of the models, we utilize test datasets and discuss a case study scenario from a selected district in Central Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This column aims to increase the visibility and exposure of network-related research projects/activities around the world. The theme of this inaugural column is "6G Networks Research in Europe — Overview of Current Status and Future Directions." While 5G technology is being deployed worldwide, research efforts in academia and industry are already shaping the vision for 6G. 6G is expected to meet the expectations that 5G cannot, deliver the next level of experience in all areas of society through hyperconnectivity, and provide services that may seem like science fiction today. In the 6G era, the human, physical, and digital worlds will merge in unison to enable rich multi-sensory experiences involving humans, machines, and the physical world. Some 6G services already stand out, including immersive extended reality, holographic communications, and virtual replicas. Achieving 6G will require major innovations in several areas, including wireless connectivity and integration of non-terrestrial networks, incorporating artificial intelligence into the very fabric of communication networks, and networked sensing. While there is still much innovation to come in 5G with new versions of the standard, 6G research is well underway around the world, including in Europe, to make 6G commercially available by 2030. The major projects underway in Europe include the following: 6G-life, Hexa-X, AI@EDGE, DAEMON, and MARSAL [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spectrum sharing has been recognized as a key component for 5G and beyond wireless networks. Recent trials have revealed the business value of spectrum sharing via the licensed shared access model, wherein both the incumbent and the licensee operators are protected from harmful interference by sharing the available spectrum using long-term spectrum access agreements. Further increase in capacity gains can be achieved by exploiting dynamic spectrum access, where access is granted in shorter time intervals, and the Spectrum Access System, which is a more flexible version of traditional LSA. This article first hints at LSA-type spectrum sharing in regulatory and standards bodies, then proposes a few relevant scenarios that would take advantage of LSA, and finally presents an LSA system architecture and some enabling technologies for LSA/DSA/SAS. These include novel sensing, dynamic and radioaware resource allocation, and advanced cooperative communication techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the need for a strategic rethinking of the policies that promote 5G development and deployment in Europe, as they are crucial in determining the future impact of 5G and later also 6G on the digital economy. Considering the current state of 5G deployment and insights that have emerged from the debate on 5G technological leadership, we discuss the need for a more effective and proactive policy from the European Union in this field. The main suggestion is to develop an industrial policy that contrasts fragmentation in the telecommunications sector by taking the whole European Union as the scale of action, instead of just the individual member states. • The need for a strategic rethinking of the policies that promote 5G development and deployment in Europe. • The paper we discuss the need for a more effective and proactive policy from the European Union in this field. • The main suggestion is to develop an industrial policy that contrasts fragmentation in the telecommunications sector by taking the whole European Union as the scale of action, instead of just the individual member states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European policy makers have shown a keen interest in the success of 5G because ubiquitous and high capacity electronic communication infrastructure is recognized as a cornerstone of economic development and productivity growth. The second generation, GSM, is considered the leading example, reaching its peak of deployment in 2015 with 3.83 billion subscribers served by over 700 operators in 219 countries and territories. With 5G rapidly shaping up in the R&D and standardization environments, and a call for leadership with 5G in Europe by policy makers, it is timely to investigate what lessons can be learned from the success of 2G that can be applied to 5G. More broadly, this calls for research into the commonalities and differences between successive generations of mobile technology, their introduction and the market adoption that followed. This also calls for an investigation into the possibility of multiple futures of 5G and how that impacts the opportunity for leadership. As one future may be more desirable than the other, depending on the perspective of the actor involved, a policy debate will be required to determine the most desirable future. As well as a discussion of the policy and regulatory actions required to enable a particular future. Hence, the two-part research question being addressed in this paper is: What explains the success of 2G-GSM and how can it be applied to create success with 5G in the European Union ? To respond to the research question this paper first identifies the leadership lessons to be drawn from the success of 2G-GSM in relation to its successors 3G and 4G. Secondly, the contribution describes two stylized images of possible futures of 5G, called “Evolution” and “Revolution”, as input to the policy debate on the options for leadership with 5G. These images reflect two extremes in terms of possible futures of 5G. “Evolution” follows the pattern of previous generations and current trends. “Revolution” represents a clear break with these trends and a path towards leadership with 5G, as it exploits the opportunities of standardized APIs for service creation, being enabled by network virtualization as an architectural foundation of 5G. These open and uniformly applied APIs allow the market entry of a multitude of virtual mobile network operators (VMNOs) serving particular industry verticals or economic sectors with tailored feature sets and qualities of services. They allow a market momentum to be built that constitutes leadership with 5G in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SDN and NFV provide new ways of achieving flexibility in network implementation. We explore the application of SDN/NFV technology to several promising use cases: (1) virtual unbundling in a VDSL vectoring environment; (2) as a complement to 5G's intended ability to simultaneously support multiple use cases; and (3) network sharing between mission-critical services (Public Protection and Disaster Relief (PPDR) or rail operations) and commercial mobile operations. We find that the use of SDN/NFV may be especially advantageous where multiple use cases must be simultaneously supported over time, but only if complex resource management challenges can be resolved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As long-haul network operators upgrade core optical networks to support 5G services, research and standardization efforts for 6G have begun. Keeping in mind the ever-growing demand for high-bandwidth services, our work proposes a novel core-network traffic model which exploits the network's graph and population metric to estimate demands. We further develop a multi-period Routing, Configuration, and Spectrum Assignment (RCSA) algorithm which takes as input the traffic model demands, and provides network metrics spread across all planning periods. A multi-period multi-band transparent optical network planning study on three European networks is undertaken, using two deployment approaches; namely, flexible bandwidth variable transceivers (Flex-BVTs) and transparent IP over wavelength division multiplexing (IPoWDM). We show that Flex-BVT places up to 15% lesser equipment into the network while carrying up to 20% higher traffic. Using a simple Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) calculation, we also show that the CAPEX-per-bit of deploying Flex-BVTs is up to 12% lower, as compared to transparent IPoWDM solutions. • Long-haul transparent networks in Europe need to upgrade infrastructure to meet the demands of 6G networks. • We propose a novel traffic model with a multi-period multi-band optical network planning algorithm, which can be used to conduct network studies. • We also conduct a network study to compare Flex-BVTs with a transparent IPoWDM CFP2-DCO-based network architecture deployment. • Flex-BVT places up to 15% lesser equipment on the network while carrying 20% higher traffic. • A cookie-cutter CAPEX approach shows a 12% lower cost-per-bit for Flex-BVT solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The common European Information and Communications Technology sector vision for 5G is that it should leverage on the strengths of both optical and wireless technologies. In the 5G context, a wide spectra of radio access technologies-such as millimetre wave transmission, massive multiple-input multiple-output and new waveforms-demand for high capacity, highly flexible and convergent transport networks. As the requirements imposed on future 5G networks rise, so do the challenges in the transport network. Hence, 5G-XHaul proposes a converged optical and wireless transport network solution with a unified control plane based on software defined networking. This solution is able to support the flexible backhaul and fronthaul-X-Haul-options required to tackle the future challenges imposed by 5G radio access technologies. 5G-XHaul studies the trade-offs involving fully or partially converged backhaul and fronthaul functions, with the aim of maximising the associated sharing benefits, improving efficiency in resource utilisation and providing measurable benefits in terms of overall cost, scalability and sustainability. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Market fragmentation has resulted in a multitude of network and cloud/data center operators, each focused on different countries, regions and technologies. This makes it difficult and costly to create infrastructure services spanning multiple domains, such as virtual connectivity or compute resources. In this article, we discuss the goals and work being done within the 5GEx (5G Exchange) project in realising a Europe-wide multi-domain platform. This platform aims at enabling cross-domain orchestration of services over multiple administrations or over multi-domain single administrations in the context of emerging 5G networking. The 5GEx vision is based on introducing a unification via network function virtualisation/software-defined networking compatible multi-domain orchestration for networks, clouds and services. We describe the motivation and 5GEx vision, the adopted architecture and the next steps in terms of implementation and experimentation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides an overview on objectives and first results of the Horizon 2020 project 5G NOvel Radio Multiservice adaptive network Architecture (5GNORMA). With 5G NORMA, leading players in the mobile ecosystem aim to underpin Europe's leadership position in 5G. The key objective of 5G NORMA is to develop a conceptually novel, adaptive and future-proof 5G mobile network architecture. This architecture will allow for adapting the network to a wide range of service specific requirements, resulting in novel service-aware and context-aware end-to-end function chaining. The technical approach is based on an innovative concept of adaptive (de)composition and allocation of mobile network functions based on end-user requirements and infrastructure capabilities. At the same time, cost savings and faster time to market are to be expected by joint deployment of logically separated multiservice and multitenant networks on common hardware and other physical resources making use of traffic multiplexing gains. In this context architectural enablers such as network function virtualization and software-defined mobile networking will play a key role for introducing the needed flexible resource assignment to logical networks and specific virtual network functions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of the fifth generation of mobile technology (5G) is expected to bring disruptive changes. These changes will be much more pervasive than any previous introduction of new mobile 'generations' and they are expected to influence the whole economy. For this reason, the global rush for 5G technology is not only considered crucial in economic or technological terms, but also for its implications in terms of geopolitics, international policy and national security. This paper presents an analysis of the patents in the most relevant fields of specialization connected to the 5G development. The period under investigation is from 2010 to 2019, and the data are extracted from the European Patent Office (EPO) and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) database. The analysis shows how the technologies and the specialisations needed to develop 5G are in the hands of a few countries around the globe, and how single European countries, taken in isolation, are not among those leading players. However, Europe, considered as a whole, competes well with the US and Asia in terms of patented innovations, suggesting the economic and strategic relevance of strengthening cooperation within the EU. • The debate regarding the 5G development, implementation and disruptiveness is gathering growing attention. • The paper present an analysis of the patents in the most relevant fields of specialization connected to the 5G development. • We study the technological complexity of the 5G ecosystem and the related implications for competition and innovation. • There are few countries at the frontier of the technological development of 5G and lagging countries will face many difficulties to cover the gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers a detailed analysis of selected regulatory parameters used as instruments to promote efficiency with fairness for all stakeholders (in the legal sense of equity) in 5G spectrum auctions. Data were collected from sixteen auctions for the C-band that took place in the Member States of the European Union (EU) and in the United Kingdom (UK) between 2017 and 2020 for the introduction of the fifth generation (5G) of mobile communication technology. The selected instruments of intervention are: spectrum packaging, spectrum caps, set-asides, geographical scope of the license, license duration, various forms of license obligations, reserve prices and auction format. Significant differences were observed in national approaches to spectrum packaging, license obligations and reserve prices for efficiency purposes. Our analysis also shows that European national regulators are paying increasing attention to concerns over fairness of decisions on spectrum, or equity, especially by creating opportunities for local private networks to access the spectrum and by imposing requirements on network operators to guarantee more uniform population coverage of newly created 5G networks. • European C-band auctions for 5G are examined in terms of their contribution to spectrum efficiency and equity. • Significant differences were observed with respect to spectrum packaging, license obligations and reserve prices. • High reserve prices and inflexible spectrum packaging constitute essential new entry barriers. • To promote equity, auctions were designed to facilitate access to spectrum for vertical players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When the telecommunications industry was liberalised in Europe and North America in the 1980s and 1990s, it inherited a legacy of monopoly providers whose footprint was national or multi-regional in its character. The regulatory framework, particularly that adopted in EU member states, reflected this pattern of relatively homogeneous deployment achieved, in part, by decades of cross-subsidised pricing and universal service goals. Perhaps because of this legacy, telecommunications regulators have often adopted the presumption that relevant markets are national in character, unless proven otherwise Although geographically-variegated regulatory remedies have been permitted (even in the face of allegedly national relevant markets) and adopted in many member states, many regulators have never done so, and overly cautious thresholds for permitting geographically based forbearance suggest a continued bias towards presuming national markets and remedies. We find that this presumption of uniformity and the tendency to aggregate geographic markets together is not supported by first principles of antitrust analysis, although there may have been strong practical reasons to apply this presumption in the past circumstances of the telecommunications and broadband industries. On the ground, however, there has arguably never been as much heterogeneity across geographies and across technological solutions that provide effective ultra-fast broadband speeds. Both technological (i.e., product market) and geographic heterogeneity are likely to increase with the advent of mobile 5G networks. With their deployment, a cautious regulatory stance towards geographic variation and a cautious regulatory stance towards inter-technology or inter-modal competition may result in regulation that could exceed what is required to ensure effective competition and could instead distort the incentives to enter of facilities-based actors. This may also result in higher-cost and inefficient investment. A more geographically varied and technologically agnostic regulatory framework may satisfy the principle of proportionate and focused regulation—with the possibility that the locus of regulation shifts from the access network to bottleneck facilities such as fibre, ducts and poles. This discussion is especially germane when one considers the highly speculative nature of forecasts and projections about future demand, and the competing claims of proponents of 5G and fibre. While there is some scepticism about the performance of mobile networks, we note that pure mobile and fixed 5G services may have synergies in deployment, and that the idea of competing with residential broadband services is a core strategy of very influential large-scale industry actors. In terms of a future research agenda, regulatory decisions could benefit from much more research into the relationship between domestic and global bandwidth constraints and their influence on development of software and application, as well as much more quantitative research by academics on the drivers of bandwidth demand. The risks associated with promoting investment that results in large-scale wasted resources should also be central to the regulatory agenda. • Technological dynamism drives geographic heterogeneity. • Regulatory practice removed from competition "first principles". • Regulatory practice rooted in single-provider, single-technology world. • Regulation may need to be more localised and technology-agnostic. • 5G, fibre and cable each pose unique regulatory considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

District heating and cooling (DHC) is considered one of the most sustainable technologies to meet the heating and cooling demands of buildings in urban areas. The fifth-generation district heating and cooling (5GDHC) concept, often referred to as ambient loops, is a novel solution emerging in Europe and has become a widely discussed topic in current energy system research. 5GDHC systems operate at a temperature close to the ground and include electrically driven heat pumps and associated thermal energy storage in a building-sited energy transfer station (ETS) to satisfy user comfort. This work presents new strategies for improving the operation of these energy transfer stations by means of a model predictive control (MPC) method based on recurrent artificial neural networks. The results show that, under simple time-of-use utility rates, the advanced controller outperforms a rule-based controller for smart charging of the domestic hot water (DHW) thermal energy storage under specific boundary conditions. By exploiting the available thermal energy storage capacity, the MPC controller is capable of shifting up to 14% of the electricity consumption of the ETS from on-peak to off-peak hours. Therefore, the advanced control implemented in 5GDHC networks promotes coupling between the thermal and the electric sector, producing flexibility on the electric grid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]