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Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed dramatically in the prehistoric period (14,000-3000 years before present, YBP), reflecting the widespread introduction of Neolithic farmer and Bronze Age Steppe ancestries. However, little is known about how population structure changed from the historical period onward (3000 YBP - present). To address this, we collected whole genomes from 204 individuals from Europe and the Mediterranean, many of which are the first historical period genomes from their region (e.g. Armenia and France). We found that most regions show remarkable inter-individual heterogeneity. At least 7% of historical individuals carry ancestry uncommon in the region where they were sampled, some indicating cross-Mediterranean contacts. Despite this high level of mobility, overall population structure across western Eurasia is relatively stable through the historical period up to the present, mirroring geography. We show that, under standard population genetics models with local panmixia, the observed level of dispersal would lead to a collapse of population structure. Persistent population structure thus suggests a lower effective migration rate than indicated by the observed dispersal. We hypothesize that this phenomenon can be explained by extensive transient dispersal arising from drastically improved transportation networks and the Roman Empire's mobilization of people for trade, labor, and military. This work highlights the utility of ancient DNA in elucidating finer scale human population dynamics in recent history., Competing Interests: MA, CW, SS, VO, HM, JS, OC, BZ, EP, KÖ, LD, PG, DF, ML, TA, SA, PA, CB, ŽB, AB, LB, PB, EB, DB, FC, MC, DD, ID, KE, MF, AG, GG, FG, SG, ZH, RJ, KV, GJ, IK, KK, HK, AK, SK, MK, VK, MK, DK, FL, ML, SL, TL, TL, WL, AS, VM, YC, NM, IM, NM, BM, LN, MN, AN, CN, JN, AO, JP, LP, DP, KP, SP, MR, MS, AS, AS, TS, MT, IT, DT, JT, DV, TW, DW, MŽ, MF, MČ, MŠ, DB, MN, AC, RP, JP No competing interests declared, ZG Reviewing editor, eLife, MB Affiliated with Palisada Ltd. The author has no financial interests to declare, JB, DL Affiliated with Kaducej Ltd. The author has no financial interests to declare, RM Affiliated with Skupina STIK. The author has no financial interests to declare, (© 2024, Antonio, Weiß, Gao et al.)

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire was a socio-political process with enormous ramifications for human history. The Middle Danube was a crucial frontier and a crossroads for population and cultural movement. Here, we present genome-wide data from 136 Balkan individuals dated to the 1 st millennium CE. Despite extensive militarization and cultural influence, we find little ancestry contribution from peoples of Italic descent. However, we trace a large-scale influx of people of Anatolian ancestry during the Imperial period. Between ∼250 and 550 CE, we detect migrants with ancestry from Central/Northern Europe and the Steppe, confirming that "barbarian" migrations were propelled by ethnically diverse confederations. Following the end of Roman control, we detect the large-scale arrival of individuals who were genetically similar to modern Eastern European Slavic-speaking populations, who contributed 30%-60% of the ancestry of Balkan people, representing one of the largest permanent demographic changes anywhere in Europe during the Migration Period., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)