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Sodium-ion batteries (SiBs) are considered as a serious alternative to the current lithium-ion batteries (LiBs). However, SiBs are an emerging technology in the early stage of development with a wide set of potential cathode material candidates available. Therefore, a major challenge is to identify the most promising and sustainable cathode materials for further research and potential commercialization, simultaneously considering relevant regulations such as the recent new EU Battery Regulation and Europe’s chemicals strategy. Herein, we provide a comprehensive hazard and toxicity screening of promising SIB cathode material, which includes three different toxicity and hazard perspectives: (i) hazard traffic lights (HTL), (ii) total hazard points (THP), and (iii) human toxicity potential (HTox). Over 20 different SiB cathode compositions were screened together with three state-of-the-art LiB-cathodes for comparison. Inputs such as gravimetric energy density and required precursors were based on a comprehensive literature review, laboratory data, and calculations. All cathode active materials were analysed via a bottom-up approach. The results clearly showed that the energy density is one of the most important factors determining the choice of materials for SiBs and their corresponding related impacts. This screening can support a preliminary assessment of cathodes and help substitute selected precursors if they are associated with increased toxic hazards, therefore contributing to the ongoing discussions on more sustainable batteries and their labelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global energy transition relies increasingly on lithium-ion batteries for electric transportation and renewable energy integration. Given the highly concentrated supply chain of battery materials, importing regions have a strategic imperative to reduce their reliance on battery material imports through, e.g., battery recycling or reuse. We investigate the potential of vehicle-to-grid and second-life batteries to reduce resource use by displacing new stationary batteries dedicated to grid storage. Based on dynamic material flow analysis, we show that equipping around 50% of electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid or reusing 40% of electric vehicle batteries for second life each have the potential to fully cover the European Union's need for stationary storage by 2040. This could reduce total primary material demand from 2020–2050 by up to 7.5% and 1.5%, respectively, which could ease geopolitical risks and increase the European Union's energy and material security. Any surplus capacity could be used as a strategic reserve to increase resilience in the face of emergencies such as blackouts or adverse geo-political events. Europe is becoming increasingly dependent on battery material imports. Here, authors show that electric vehicle batteries could fully cover Europe's need for stationary battery storage by 2040, through either vehicle-to-grid or second-life-batteries, and reduce battery material demand by up to 7.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pace of the implementation of renewable electricity storage in Europe is disappointingly slow. Several factors influence this and there is a need to speed up the rate and increase the volumes in order to promote a 100% transition to renewable energy resources, expand the practice of using renewable energy, and contribute to the improvement of the quality of life of consumers. An important factor is significantly reducing impact on the environment and climate change. Electricity from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind has a seasonal nature that cannot provide the necessary electricity consumption and cover peak loads. The so-called "energy resource crisis" is also a very topical problem at the moment, which reinforces the global need to increase the share of renewable energy resources in the overall balance of primary energy resources. Practical wider integration of renewable electricity storage is what can help stimulate this. The availability of renewable electricity is constantly increasing, and the level of technological innovation is rapidly developing. Therefore, it is valuable to analyse, look for connections and for ways to accumulate electricity in order to promote its availability from private homes to the national scale and more broadly on the European scale. Therefore, this article analyses and compares the different options for renewable electricity storage, from small batteries to large storage systems, arriving at the best solution according to needs, using analysis methods such as multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) and TOPSIS. After comparing nine criteria, such as the amount of investment required, existing power density, efficiency, duration of operation, and others in two groups (small and large accumulation systems), it was concluded that lithium-ion batteries are currently the best solution among batteries, while pumped hydro storage is the best solution among large accumulation systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The market for electric vehicles is growing rapidly, and there is a large demand for lithium‐ion batteries (LIB). Studies have predicted a growth of 600% in LIB demand by 2030. However, the production of LIBs is energy intensive, thus contradicting the goal set by Europe to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and become GHG emission free by 2040. Therefore, in this study, it was analyzed how the energy consumption and corresponding GHG emissions from LIB cell production may develop until 2030. Economic, technological, and political measures were considered and applied to market forecasts and to a model of a state‐of‐the art LIB cell factory. Notably, different scenarios with trend assumptions and above/below‐trend assumptions were considered. It could be deduced that, if no measures are taken and if the status quo is extrapolated to the future, by 2030, ∼5.86 Mt CO2‐eq will be emitted due to energy consumption from European LIB cell production. However, by applying a combination of economic, technological, and political measures, energy consumption and GHG emissions could be decreased by 46% and 56% by 2030, respectively. Furthermore, it was found that political measures, such as improving the electricity mix, are important but less dominant than improving the production technology and infrastructure. In this study, it could be deduced that, by 2030, through industrialization and application of novel production technologies, the energy consumption and GHG emissions from LIB cell production in Europe can be reduced by 24%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed at a quantitative analysis of the material flows associated with End of Life (EoL) lithium-ion batteries' (LIBs) materials in Europe. The European electric vehicles fleet in 2020 was taken as a case study, assuming a 10-year lifetime for the batteries and that the related EoL LIBs would be processed by existing recycling plants via pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, or their combination in sequence. The economic implications (recycling operative costs compared to the revenues from the sales of the recycled metals) and the environmental performances (CO2 eq. emitted, energy demand and circularity performances) were assessed. Based on the gathered results, the existing European recycling capacity will overlook over 78% of the forecasted EoL LIBs. The treatment efficiencies of the full-scale recycling processes allow for the recovery of over 90% of copper, cobalt, nickel, and manganese, 87% of aluminum, and only 42% of lithium and 35% of iron entering the recycling facilities. In overall, LIBs recycling in 2030 will involve the emission of 3.7 Mt of CO2 eq. and an energy demand of 33.6 GWh. Hydrometallurgy presents the best economic and environmental trade-off compared to other recycling strategies. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that current European LIBs' recycling infrastructure will be inadequate in the near future and the direction (i.e., hydrometallurgy) that its strengthening should pursue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite intensive research activities on lithium‐ion technology, particularly in the past five decades, the technological background for automotive lithium‐ion battery mass production in Europe is rather young and not yet ready to meet requirements of automobile manufacturers. In light of the strong increase in electromobility, bridging this gap between fundamental research and industrial production is mandatory to keep the value chain of automobile manufacture in European countries. Challenges in know‐how transfer from lab scale to industry scale arise from different product configurations and objectives. Lab scale focuses primarily on material development and screening, utilizes small‐sized half‐cell or single‐layered designs with one‐side‐coated electrodes, and applies manually operated, discontinuous equipment, whereas industry focuses on optimized trade‐offs between throughput, quality, and costs. Market‐relevant cells contain usually double‐side‐coated electrodes with comparatively higher areal capacities, assembled into multilayered configurations. Mass production is conducted through automated, continuous processes including roll‐to‐roll manufacturing and consecutive pick‐and‐place operations. Inevitably, standard laboratory conditions do not allow for prediction of either optimized mass‐production process parameters nor physicochemical characteristics of final products. Hence, this Review aims to identify challenges in transferring lab‐scale results to industry with special focus on pilot lines as intermediate step between the different technological levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European legislation stated that electric vehicles' sale must increase to 35% of circulating vehicles by 2030, and concern is associated to the batteries' supply chain. This review aims at analysing the impacts (about material flows and CO 2 eq emissions) of Lithium-Ion Batteries' (LIBs) recycling at full-scale in Europe in 2030 on the European LIBs' supply-chain. Literature review provided the recycling technologies' (e.g., pyro- and hydrometallurgy) efficiencies, and an inventory of existing LIBs' production and recycling plants in Europe. European production plants exhibit production capacity adequate for the expected 2030 needs. The key critical issues associated to recycling regard pre-treatments and the high costs and environmental impacts of metallurgical processes. Then, according to different LIBs' composition and market shares in 2020, and assuming a 10-year battery lifetime, the Material Flow Analysis (MFA) of the metals embodied in End of Life (EoL) LIBs forecasted in Europe in 2030 was modelled, and the related CO 2 eq emissions calculated. In 2030 the European LIBs' recycling structure is expected to receive 664 t of Al, 530 t of Co, 1308 t of Cu, 219 t of Fe, 175 t of Li, 287 t of Mn and 486 t of Ni. Of these, 99% Al, 86% Co, 96% Cu, 88% Mn and 98% Ni will be potentially recovered by pyrometallurgy, and 71% Al, 92% Co, 92% Fe, 96% Li, 88 % Mn and 90% Ni by hydrometallurgy. However, even if the recycling efficiencies of the technologies applied at full-scale are high, the treatment capacity of European recycling plants could supply as recycled metals only 2%-wt of the materials required for European LIBs' production in 2030 (specifically 278 t of Al, 468 t of Co, 531 t of Cu, 114 t of Fe, 95 t of Li, 250 t of Mn and 428 t of Ni). Nevertheless, including recycled metals in the production of new LIBs could cut up 28% of CO 2 eq emissions, compared to the use of virgin raw materials, and support the European batteries' value chain. [Display omitted] • Electric vehicles' market growth in Europe generates concern about the value chain. • Current bottlenecks are mostly related to lithium-ion batteries' (LIBs) supply chain. • European recycling infrastructure can provide 2%-wt of metals required for LIBs by 2030. • Recycling metals in LIBs could cut 28% of CO 2 eq emissions compared to virgin metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Second-use entails energy savings but also delays availability of secondary raw materials. • Different perspectives should be used to assess the effects of second-use of batteries. • A dynamic and parametrized MFA model describes the value-chain of batteries in Europe. • Flows of batteries/energy storage capacity/materials are assessed for various scenarios. • More robust data as model input are needed to proper manage the whole battery system. Although not yet developed in Europe, second-use of traction batteries enables an extension of their lifetime and potentially improves life cycle environmental performance. Li-ion batteries (LIBs) offer the most promising chemistry for traction batteries in electric vehicles (xEVs) and for second-use. Due to the novelty of the topic and the expected increase of e-mobility in the next decades, more efforts to understand the potential consequences of second-use of batteries from different perspectives are needed. This paper develops a dynamic, parameterised Material Flow Analysis (MFA) model to estimate stocks and flows of LIBs after their removal from xEVs along the specific processes of the european value-chain. Direct reuse, second-use and recycling are included in the model and parameters make it customisable and updatable. Focusing on full and plug-in electric vehicles, LIBs and energy storage capacity flows are estimated. Stocks and flows of two embedded materials relevant for Europe were also assessed (cobalt and lithium). Results showed that second-use corresponds to a better exploitation of LIBs' storage capacity. Meanwhile, Co and Li in-use stocks are locked in LIBs and their recovery is delayed by second-use; depending on the slower/faster development of second-use, the amount of Co available for recycling in 2030 ranges between 9% and 15% of Co demand and between 7 and 16% for Li. Uncertainty of inputs is addressed through sensitivity analysis. A variety of actors can use this MFA model to enhance knowledge of second-use of batteries in Europe and to support the effective management of LIBs along their value-chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the production of batteries for electric vehicles continues to grow, so does the demand for primary battery raw materials. Against the supply risks and environmental issues associated with raw material mining and transportation, battery material circularity has become a burgeoning topic in academia, policy, and industry. While prior research has explored secondary supply and demand, an important gap remains regarding the break-even points (BEPs) where full circularity is reached (secondary supply = demand). Using a material flow analysis, this study offers two contributions: First, it calculates the BEPs for critical raw materials (lithium, cobalt, nickel) in different regions. The results show that China will realize full circularity more than ten years earlier than Europe and the US for lithium and nickel and seven years earlier for cobalt. Second, it identifies levers (e.g., earlier full electrification) that can accelerate full circularity, thereby demonstrating how independence from primary raw materials can be achieved earlier. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for Lithium-ion batteries for Electric Vehicle calls for the adoption of sustainable practices and a switch towards a circular economy-based system to ensure that the electrification of transportation does not come at a high environmental cost. While driving patterns have not changed much over the years, the current Electric Vehicle market is evolving towards models with higher battery capacities. In addition, these batteries are considered to reach the End of Life at 70–80% State of Health, regardless of their capacity and application requirements. These issues may cause an underuse of the batteries and, therefore, hinder the sustainability of the Electric Vehicle. The goal of this study is to review and compare the circular processes available around Electric Vehicle batteries. The review highlights the importance of prioritizing the first-life of the battery onboard, starting with reducing the nominal capacity of the models. In cases where the battery is in risk of reaching the End of Life with additional value, Vehicle to Grid is encouraged over the deployment of second-life applications, which are being strongly promoted through institutional fundings in Europe. As a result of the identified research gaps, the methodological framework for the estimation of a functional End of Life is proposed, which constitutes a valuable tool for sustainable decision-making and allows to identify a more accurate End of Life, rather than considering the fixed threshold assumed in the literature. [Display omitted] • Current EVs have the risk of being underused due to the high battery capacities. • All batteries are assumed to be retired at 80% SoH regardless of the application. • Circular practices during the first stages of the lifetime must be prioritized. • A methodological framework for defining a functional EoL is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper the recycling of nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion) and primary lithium batteries was examined. Three mechanical routes of treatment were developed for each type recovering mainly three fractions: ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals and electrodic powders. The above mentioned types of spent batteries were also treated together by a unique mechanical route, obtaining in this way a powder enriched in cobalt, nickel and manganese which can be further extractable by chemical leaching. Experimental tests of solvent extraction were performed on synthetic leach liquors simulating a feed mixture of spent devices with weight composition 40% NiMH, 40% primary lithium, and 20% Li-ion (as determined by manual sorting of 3 tons of end of life batteries collected in Northern Italy). Under these conditions nickel and cobalt can be easily separated by using Cyanex 272 (stoichiometric ratio Cyanex/Co = 4, pH 5–6), but in presence of manganese Cyanex 272 loses its selectivity towards cobalt. Thus manganese must be preliminarily removed by using D2EHPA (stoichiometric ratio D2EHPA/Mn = 2, pH 4). Mechanical treatments and hydrometallurgical section to recover metals from electrodic powder are unavoidable operations in order to recover at least 50% of batteries as weight according to European Guideline 2006/66/EC. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article offers news briefs related to materials failure analysis and prevention as of April 5, 2012. Researchers from the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) have developed an inexpensive sensor that can detect catastrophic lithium-ion battery failure. Raymond Browning of R. Browning Consultants has developed an x-ray photoelectron spectroscopic microscope. The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) has ordered checks on the wings of the global Airbus A380 fleet.

The composition of urban districts - residential, commercial, or 'mixed' topologies - can have drastically different energy load profiles and peak demands, leading to altered optimal District Multi-Energy System (D-MES) designs. Although demand-influenced differences in D-MES designs are generally understood, there is a research gap of how the interplay of various storage technologies differs between topologies. In this paper, we investigate the extent of D-MES reliance on storage technologies over various district topologies in central Europe. The core of this analysis relies on a multi-objective MILP optimization model utilized in an uncertainty analysis framework. Optimal D-MES results show distributions of designs which vary depending on uncertain parameters. For district energy planners, main findings show that mixed districts are the most promising case for D-MES planning due to a diversified demand type balance leading to lower costs and emissions. Residential districts typified by high peaks demonstrate larger storage requirements. All three storage technologies are key components of low emissions D-MES, enabling increased sector-coupling and renewable self-consumption. Such districts utilize power-to-hydrogen seasonally while batteries are relied upon for short-term load management. The most influential parameters for power-to-hydrogen installation are mainly attributed to competing technologies on the electric (batteries) and thermal (ASHPs) sectors. • Interplay of urban district topology and reliance on energy storage technologies. • Multi-objective optimization of multi-energy systems for costs and CO₂ emissions. • Consideration of thermal storage, electric li-ion batteries, and power-to-hydrogen. • Mixed district topologies provide demand-side balance, reducing storage requirements. • Power-to-hydrogen highly sensitive to competing storages' techno-economic inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Battery energy storage is becoming an important asset in modern power systems. Considering the market prices and battery storage characteristics, reserve provision is a tempting play fields for such assets. This paper aims at filling the gap by developing a mathematically rigorous model and applying it to the existing and future electricity market design in Europe. The paper presents a bilevel model for optimal battery storage participation in day-ahead energy market as a price taker, and reserve capacity and activation market as a price maker. It uses an accurate battery charging model to reliably represent the behavior of real-life lithium-ion battery storage. The proposed bilevel model is converted into a mixed-integer linear program by using the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker optimality conditions. The case study uses real-life data on reserve capacity and activation costs and quantities in German markets. The reserves activation quantities and activation prices are modeled by a set of credible scenarios in the lower-level problem. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to comprehend to what extent do battery storage bidding prices affect its overall profit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an environmental sustainability assessment of residential user-scale energy systems, named solar home systems, encompassing their construction, operation, and end of life. The methodology adopted is composed of three steps, namely a design phase, a simulation of the solar home systems' performance and a life cycle assessment. The analysis aims to point out the main advantages, features, and challenges of lithium-ion batteries, considered as a benchmark, compared with other innovative devices. As the environmental sustainability of these systems is affected by the solar radiation intensity during the year, a sensitivity analysis is performed varying the latitude of the installation site in Europe. For each site, both isolated and grid-connected solar home systems have been compared considering also the national electricity mix. A general overview of the results shows that, regardless of the installation site, solid state nickel cobalt manganese and nickel cobalt aluminium lithium-ion batteries are the most suitable choices in terms of sustainability. Remarkably, other novel devices, like sodium-ion batteries, are already competitive with them and have great potential. With these batteries, the solar home systems' eco-profile is generally advantageous compared to the energy mix, especially in on-grid configurations, with some exceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new European project, Astrabat, has been launched to design an innovative high-energy and safe, solid-state lithium-ion battery cell for the electric vehicle market and beyond. Main objectives of the project are: To develop materials for a solid hybrid electrolyte and electrodes enabling high energy, high voltage and reliable all-solid-state Li-ion cells; To adapt the development of new all-solid-state batteries to a conventional process adopted for manufacturing electrodes in Li-ion cells; To design an all-solid-state-battery architecture for the next generation of 2030 Li-ion batteries; To define an efficient cell architecture to comply with improved safety demands; To generate a new value chain of all-solid-state batteries, including eco design, end of life and recycling. [Extracted from the article]