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This paper examines the interacting problems which govern poor access to quality drinking water, as well as the related problems of solid waste treatment and recycling. The need for a stable political resolution of the Israel-Palestine conflict is paramount. Although long-term solutions to the crisis require a regional political solution, there are several local activities that can reduce the degradation of water supplies and larger eco-systems. These include desalination of seawater and brackish water, water import and domestic water filtration units. The big problem is to allow the groundwater aquifer to recharge over time. Other problems - all caused by the unresolved conflict - are unemployment, land degradation, agriculture limitation, smuggling of pesticides and fertilisers, absence of monitoring and licensing, and the collapse of the political system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geography, population growth, and politics combine to make the Gaza Strip a worst-case scenario for water resource planners. Potable water sources are shrinking while at the same time, the proportion of potable water used for irrigation is increasing. To assess whether water from wastewater treatment plants could be safely used for irrigation, this study collected 51 treated wastewater, 51 sludge, 44 soil, 30 alfalfa, and 24 oranges and lemon samples and analyzed the samples for major and trace elements. Both Inductively Coupled Plasma - Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP/OES) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were used for the determination of Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, Se, Sr, Zn, Zr, Th, and U in digested and solid samples, respectively. Treated wastewater characteristics showed a very good agreement with the guidelines of many developed countries. Moreover, none of the tested parameters in soil showed concentrations exceeding their corresponding background values. For alfalfa, both ICP/OES and XRF showed Zn concentrations in leaves (36-42 mg/kg, respectively) higher than in root (19-31 mg/kg, respectively). The Cu showed also the same trend as Zn. No significant variation was observed between the concentrations of Cr and Mn in plant parts; concentrations of Co and Pb were two times higher in roots than in leaves and stems. The findings confirm that treated wastewater is safe to use for irrigation in Gaza. Collecting and reclaiming this water can contribute to wise use of each drop of water available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive monitoring program was conducted for the sludge of Gaza between 2001 and 2006. All 32 tested parameters except zinc and adsorbable organic halogens were within the allowable values for sludge to be applied in agriculture. Average concentrations of zinc (Zn) in the sludge from the Gaza Strip for the 4 years 2002–2005 reached 2,000 mg/kg which represents a major limiting factor for sludge application in agriculture. This study aimed to measure levels of Zn in the wastewater and sludge in December 2006 and to identify the sources and the build up of Zn in the sludge in Gaza. Cd, Cr and Pb were also assessed for their relationship to sources and buildup of Zn. The results showed that there is no significant fluctuation in the concentration of Cd, Cr and Pb in the different stages of wastewater treatment. Zn, however, is concentrated inside the treatment plant by processes of precipitation and/or absorption, particularly in the aerobic facilities. Although the plant receives wastewater with Zn concentrations of only 9 μg/l, this concentration increased 18-fold inside the aerobic lagoon of the treatment plant, before dropping to an average of 14 μg/l in the effluent wastewater. The sludge from the first sedimentation pond showed a Zn concentration of 567 mg/kg and increased in the effluent polishing pond to 1,643 mg/kg. The Zn concentration in 3-month-old sludge averaged 592 mg/kg. There was no correlation between the Zn concentrations in the sludge and the wastewater at the same location. However, there was a strong correlation between Zn and Pb in the sludge. The electroplating and galvanization industries are the major Zn producing industries in Gaza, with an average Zn of 2,995 and 1,557 μg/l, respectively in their effluent wastewater. These values do not represent a significant Zn pollution load to the treatment plant because these industries are limited in size and number, and their effluents are diluted before entering the treatment plant. Industrial activity decreased in 2006 to less than 70% of that in the previous four years. Consequently, the average concentrations of Zn in selected industrial effluents decreased from 1,500 for 2002–2005 to 400 μg/l in December 2006. Sludge from these industries showed 1,300 mg/kg Zn for 2002–2005 and only 400 mg/kg in 2006. Moreover, the Zn in the influent wastewater discharged to the treatment plant decreased from 65 to 9 μg/l for the same period. Exposure of sludge to the sun for few months reduces the Zn concentration. One reason is probably leaching. This simple procedure may solve the problem of sludge application in agriculture. This will be especially important if industrial production returns to its former level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seven years of monitoring groundwater in the Gaza Strip has shown that nitrate was and still is a major groundwater pollutant. The objectives of this research were to study the distribution of NO3 − in the groundwater of the Gaza Strip and to identify the sources of NO3 − in the Gaza aquifer system by assessing nitrogen and oxygen isotopes. The most recent samples collected in 2007 showed 90% of the wells having NO3 − concentrations that are several times higher than the WHO standards of 50 mg/L. Potential NO3 − source materials in Gaza are animal manure N, synthetic NH4 based fertilizers, and wastewater/sludge. The average concentrations of N in the sludge, manure and soil of Gaza were 2.9%, 1% and 0.08%, respectively. The range in δ 15N of solid manure samples was +7.5 to +11.9‰. The range in δ 15N of sludge samples was +4.6 to +7.4‰, while four brands of synthetic fertilizers commonly used in Gaza had δ 15N ranging from +0.2 to +1.0‰. Sludge amended soil had δ 15N ranging from +2.0 to +7.3‰. For both δ 18O and δ 15N, the ranges of groundwater NO3 − were −0.1 to +9.3‰ and +3.2 to 12.8‰, respectively. No significant bacterial denitrification is taking place in the Gaza Strip aquifer. Nitrate was predominantly derived from manure and, provided δ 15N of sludge represents the maximum δ 15N of human waste, to a lesser extent from septic effluents/sludge. Synthetic fertilizers were a minor source. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]