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Eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica , are commercially important coastal species that provide many ecosystem services for coastal communities. Unfortunately, 85% of oyster reefs have been lost globally, prompting investments in restoration efforts to rebuild populations. Managers often consider several well-studied environmental and water quality parameters when making restoration site decisions. However, recent research suggests that submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) may play a role in driving the distribution of oysters in some estuaries. Specifically, SGD may result in localized areas of low dissolved oxygen and low pH that could inhibit oyster recruitment and survival. However, SGD may interact with other potential oyster stressors, including creek geomorphology. On point bars, sediment accumulation could alter growth rates of oysters and physiology, and it is possible that the two factors, SGD and creek geomorphology, could interact to impact oyster growth. We conducted a field experiment to examine the effects of SGD and creek geomorphology on oyster growth rates in a marsh-lined tidal creek in Georgia, USA. High and low SGD sites were paired within point bars and cut banks. Oysters were deployed in cages for 72 days and growth rates were determined. We found a significant interaction between SGD and creek geomorphology on oyster growth rates. Oysters grew at significantly faster rates at locations on accretionary point bars regardless of SGD flux, whereas, on erosional cut banks, high SGD flux significantly reduced oyster growth rate relative to low SGD flux. It appears that SGD may negatively influence oyster growth at specific creek locations, likely due to the presence of other stressors. Therefore, it is important to consider potential interacting and confounding stressors when managing oyster populations. As SGD is still a relatively understudied potential stressor for oysters, it is critical to continue to examine how groundwater might influence oysters in other locations and in combination with other stressors. Regardless, this study provides further evidence that SGD should be considered in future management efforts., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2023 Carroll et al.)

Reef-building eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, provide many ecosystem services, including production of valuable commercial products, formation of complex habitats, improved water quality and shoreline protection. Despite this, oyster populations have experienced dramatic declines throughout their range, spawning massive investment in management and restoration. Restoration efforts typically consider several well-studied metrics that normally influence oyster success; however, one potential factor that has not received much prior attention is submarine groundwater discharge (SGD). We conducted a series of field surveys and field experiments to explore the relationship between SGD and oysters in a marsh-lined tidal creek in Georgia, USA. SGD was mapped across multiple time points using a natural radon tracer (radon-222), and fluxes were paired with discrete measurements of oyster density, condition, size, recruitment and growth at multiple locations along the creek. Variation in oyster metrics was best explained by a combination of SGD, pH, and DO, which displayed a high degree of multicollinearity. We found an overall negative, nonlinear relationship between oyster density and groundwater flux. Interestingly, juvenile and adult condition and growth were not negatively impacted by groundwater. Rather, our results suggest that the likely mechanism for the density-flux relationship was interruption of the larval recruitment, which was also negatively related to flux. We hypothesize that larval interruption is due to the low dissolved oxygen and pH conditions of the groundwater at high flux sites. Overall, the interaction between SGD and oysters appears complex, and may be affected by other variables. This study provides evidence of a potential negative effect of a previously understudied natural phenomena on oyster demographics, and we suggest that SGD be considered in future management efforts., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)