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Throughout the world, schools are visited by students with different native languages. Therefore, the linguistic competencies of the students are diverse. Dealing with this diversity is a great challenge for teachers in general, including in science subjects. To face this challenge, all institutions involved in education should adapt their teaching and learning to linguistic diversity to foster student's language competencies. Non-formal education, such as student laboratories, could enhance formal chemistry education and support students in learning the subject's contents and acquiring language competencies. To this purpose, language-sensitive and language-supportive learning settings for different chemical topics and contexts are developed to enable all students to participate actively and foster language competencies. The learning settings are implemented and evaluated at the Ludwigsburg University of Education (Germany) using a cyclical approach based on Participatory Action Research. Data from 147 students from seven learning groups of various grade levels and school types were collected before and after they experienced the work in student laboratories. The focus was on students' situational interests and their views on offered language-sensitive and language-supportive methods, tools, and activities. The data shows that the approach has a positive effect on students' situational interest. Methods that were especially helpful for the students are filtered. On this basis, implications are drawn for the application to other non-formal education offers

In the future, learning will be essentially characterized by the ability to regulate the learning process and monitor success independently from a teacher. The technical possibilities offer better access to learning contents, precise and more individualized feedback, and learning phases adapted precisely to the needs of the learner in terms of scope and pace. In this study, we investigate an important aspect of the digitization of teaching/learning processes using the example of laboratory scripts for chemistry students at university. The focus is on looking up terms and concepts in preparation for the lab internships, firstly in a paper-based glossary and secondly in a digital glossary. During a two-day study, a total of 16 students prepared for experiments on two topics with completely identical materials. We then studied the influence of content knowledge, motivation, and cognitive load. While all students show significant learning achievements, there are no significant differences between the groups. Furthermore, results show that pure digitization of information has no effect, despite the theoretically assumed advantages.

Resonance is a crucial concept in Organic Chemistry that enables both deriving chemical properties from molecular structures and predicting reactions by considering electron density distribution. Despite its importance for problem-solving and learning success, learners encounter various difficulties with this concept. Although prior research suggests that learners struggle to reason about resonance in problem-solving tasks, existing studies are often limited to singular contexts. Given that task approaches and reasoning are context-dependent, little is known about how learners use resonance across task contexts and which characteristics underlie productive concept use. To this end, a qualitative interview study was conducted, in which undergraduate chemistry students (N = 21), all beginners of Organic Chemistry, solved three organic case comparison tasks requiring the consideration of resonance. Through the analytical lens of the coordination class theory, we analysed the extent to which students used their representations of resonance structures, their task approaches, and the variety of resonance-related resource activation and connection in problem-solving across three different contexts. The results show that students' use of resonance is diverse across the contexts. It can be characterized by a complex interplay of multiple factors reflecting the multifold processes when considering resonance. However, some essential characteristics of productive concept use in problem-solving (e.g., the activation of resources across different granularity levels) could be deduced. Implications for supporting learners' use of resonance in problem-solving are discussed.

Chemish - the scientific language of chemistry - is crucial for learning chemistry. To help students acquire the competencies to understand and use Chemish, chemistry teachers need to have a sound knowledge of teaching and learning Chemish: Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge (PSLK). But still, despite the importance of this knowledge, the question remains what exactly it is. Based on a model for science teachers' PSLK developed through a systematic review, this study seeks to validate the developed model by interviewing experienced chemistry teachers, filling the model with more detail, and examining further and systematising chemistry teachers' PSLK. Therefore, semi-structured interviews with 19 German secondary chemistry teachers are conducted. The interviews are analyzed both deductively using the results of the systematic review and inductively following the approach of Grounded Theory. Finally, the elements of PSLK resulting from the systematic review, as they are knowledge of (i) scientific language role models, (ii) the development of the concept before the development of the scientific language, (iii) making scientific terms and language explicit, (iv) providing a discursive classroom, (v) providing multiple resources and representations, (vi) providing scaffolds for scientific language development, (vii) communicating expectations clearly, and (viii) specific methods and tools for teaching and learning the scientific language, could be validated and described in more detail, and even new elements, as they are the knowledge of (ix) the motivation when learning scientific language as well as (x) the knowledge of lesson preparation and follow-up, could be identified and described through the interviews. Furthermore, elements influencing the development of and PSLK itself are characterized. Implications to foster Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge during teacher preparation will be given.

Citizen science has gained importance in recent years and revealed great potential, especially regarding science learning and environmental education. However, little is known about ways of supporting individual learning processes within citizen science. With this in mind, a home experiment set, the Nitrogen Box, was developed within a chemistry citizen science project on nitrogen pollution of water bodies. The aim of the box was primarily to deepen the subject matter and to sensitize the citizens to the topic. To gain deeper insights into the usability and added value of home experiments in a citizen science context, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten citizens. Analysis of these interviews revealed that the nitrogen box contributed to a consolidation and deepening of knowledge of the nitrogen problem in Northwest Germany. Home experiment sets like Nitrogen Box can motivate and enable citizens to engage more deeply with the scientific topic in the future, to reflect on it and discuss it. We discuss how heterogeneity of the target group presents challenges for designing citizen science projects and provide recommendations for the future projects.

"Chemish," as the scientific language of chemistry, is essential for communicating in and understanding chemistry. At the same time, Chemish is one of the major difficulties in teaching and learning chemistry in the school context. Although in recent years the importance of language in general and scientific language in particular has been pointed out and much research has been carried out on these topics, less is known about (pre-service) chemistry teachers' knowledge of teaching and learning the scientific language in chemistry classes. Thus, the research on "Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge" (PSLK) is missing. As this knowledge is crucial for (future) chemistry teachers to teach chemistry, in our survey, we seek to evaluate the extent of 41 pre-service chemistry teachers' PSLK. The answers are analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Results show that pre-service chemistry teachers' content knowledge resembles the level of knowledge for higher secondary schools. Likewise, the pre-service chemistry teachers have a lack of incisive pedagogical content knowledge: although recognizing problems within Chemish, the pre-service chemistry teachers hardly address those and do not focus on the characteristics of Chemish while explaining scientific terms. On this basis, implications for further university chemistry teacher education and research will be drawn.

Scientists are often described as smart and logical thinkers but lacking in the so-called "soft skills." Well-known TV series such as "The Big Bang Theory" and "Breaking Bad" have also shaped these stereotypical ideas in society. In the present study, a total of 1013 students in grades 8 and 11 were asked about factors that influenced a chemistry-related career choice. Since interest is considered an important factor influencing the career choice, the focus of this study was placed on images and stereotypes compared with academic self-concepts. The models calculated by multiple linear regressions showed significant differences in relation to grades but insignificant in terms of school type. A chemistry-related career choice of 11th grade students was based on the image of chemistry lessons and the distance between self-description and the view of a stereotypical chemical prototype whereas in grade 8 factors such as their grade in chemistry or factors of the academic self-concept also influenced this decision. The results point out the need to promote vocational orientation in chemistry lessons. It is particularly important that students have the opportunity to form a realistic image of chemists.

In the past decades, society in general has become strongly diverse. This change also affects schools. As a result, learning groups cannot be seen as homogeneous and taught in this way. One of the challenges is students' linguistic skills. Dealing with different linguistic competencies should not only be a focus of formal education in schools but supported by non-formal education such as student laboratories. Thus, there is a need for practical examples that are effective for teaching and learning of diverse groups of students and enables them to be an active part of the learning process. At the Ludwigsburg University of Education, learning settings for student laboratories that enable active participation for all students irrespective of their linguistic competencies are developed and implemented following the model of Participatory Action Research in three cycles. In a cyclical approach, language-sensitive and language-supportive learning materials are developed, implemented, and evaluated focusing on different chemical contents. Qualitative data are collected during the experimentation phase using a semi-structured observation sheet. In three phases, we evaluated semi-structured observations of eight learning groups of different grade levels and school types with a total of 163 students. The observations are analyzed using inductive qualitative content analysis. The results show an optimal composition of approved methods, tools, and activities as succesful examples. Furthermore, interdependence between different factors could be identified that have positive relations with active participation of all students.

Collaboration is regarded as one of the core competences of the 21st century when it comes to complex problem solving. In response to high dropout rates among STEM students, we developed a digital-collaborative intervention on a difficult topic, MO theory, for first-year chemistry students. First, students work independently in a Digital Learning Environment (DLE). Afterwards, they collaborate in small groups and create Concept Maps on MO theory. We evaluate this intervention through knowledge tests, tests of attractiveness, cognitive load, and usability during the DLE and concept mapping process, as well as audio and screen recordings during the collaborative group processes. This paper presents the detailed study design together with results from a first study in January 2021, focusing on the practicability of the intervention and students' feedback. Overall, each small group succeeded in creating a Concept Map. Students rated all phases of the intervention as attractive, with high usability and low cognitive load, although the interactive videos scored better for attractiveness and usability than the concept mapping process. On that basis, first adjustments for a second cycle of the intervention, which will be conducted in January 2022, were derived.

Primary school teachers need adequate professional knowledge and motivational orientations to qualify scientifically and technologically literate students. Previous studies have focused on the impact of coursework on (pre-service) primary teachers' content knowledge, rather than on the development of academic self-concepts. In addition, the influence of the course format and the major field of study has not been investigated much to this date. Thus, this study examines the effects of an interdisciplinary course on pre-service primary teachers' content knowledge and academic self-concepts in science and technology using a quasi-experimental, quantitative, pre-post-follow-up design (n = 202). Whilst no significant changes in knowledge were revealed for the baseline group not participating in the course, significant short-term and long-term cognitive gains were found for the experimental group. Biology-, chemistry-, physics- and technology-related self-concepts increased significantly when participating in the course. The results also indicate that the course format and major field of study can have an impact on the development of pre-service teachers' professional knowledge. Regarding the development of academic self-concepts in the experimental group, it can be assumed that both the weekly and block course format are beneficial for heterogeneous learner groups consisting of pre-service teachers with different major fields of study.

Students' interest is considered an important learning outcome, but it is also a relevant predictor for student learning, and future vocational choices. According to numerous studies, however, students' interest in STEM fields usually declines during the course of secondary education. From the perspective of science education, it is therefore necessary to foster or at least maintain students' interest. Despite the variety of approaches that have already been examined in order to promote student interest, the problem of low-interested students remains. Prior findings indicate that specific person characteristics and the students' perception of the situation seem to be moderate the effectiveness of many approaches. The current intensive repeated measure intervention study addresses the investigation of a possible interest trigger (formative assessment) and also the process that influences the perception of this trigger. Based on a sample of 9th-grade chemistry students (N = 200), three different interventions of formative assessment were implemented in regular classrooms. Students' situational interest was assessed repeatedly in short time intervals. Based on multilevel analyses, not all interventions were perceived as equally interesting by the students. While students' individual interest influences the perception of all interventions positively, the impact of gender, chemistry grade, and enjoyment varies across the interventions.

Hands-on courses utilizing preserved human tissues for educational training offer an important pathway to acquire basic anatomical knowledge. Owing to the reevaluation of formaldehyde limits by the European Commission, a joint approach was chosen by the German-speaking anatomies in Europe (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) to find commonalities among embalming protocols and infrastructure. A survey comprising 537 items was circulated to all anatomies in German-speaking Europe. Clusters were established for "ethanol"-, formaldehyde-based ("FA"), and "other" embalming procedures, depending on the chemicals considered the most relevant for each protocol. The logistical framework, volumes of chemicals, and infrastructure were found to be highly diverse between the groups and protocols. Formaldehyde quantities deployed per annum were three-fold higher in the "FA" (223 L/a) compared to the "ethanol" (71.0 L/a) group, but not for "other" (97.8 L/a), though the volumes injected per body were similar. "FA" was strongly related to table-borne air ventilation and total fixative volumes =1000 L. "Ethanol" was strongly related to total fixative volumes >1000 L, ceiling- and floor-borne air ventilation, and explosion-proof facilities. Air ventilation was found to be installed symmetrically in the mortuary and dissection facilities. Certain predictors exist for the interplay between the embalming used in a given infrastructure and technical measures. The here-established cluster analysis may serve as decision supportive tool when considering altering embalming protocols or establishing joint protocols between institutions, following a best practice approach to cater toward best-suited tissue characteristics for educational purposes, while simultaneously addressing future demands on exposure limits.

Recent progress in elucidating chemical reactions allows to explain chemistry by the potential energy of the involved chemical structures. Nevertheless, from an educational point of view, empirical results indicate that students often do not connect the core idea of energy with other chemical concepts. From a resource-oriented perspective, students do not draw on a coherent concept of chemistry to solve a problem but rather activate diverse cognitive resources, crucially depending on the context. It is thus of interest which resources high school students activate to reflect on energetic aspects of a chemical reaction. In this study, 38 German high school students in 16 focus groups were asked to explain kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine. The unguided focus group phase and the following semistructured qualitative interview were analysed by qualitative content analysis. Results show that students have a diverse network of cognitive resources on energetic aspects. However, this network's structure seems to be dominated by terminology and a few prominent ideas such as activation energy. In contrast, students seldom drew connections between bond-making and energy release. Many students mainly argued on a macroscopic level and relied heavily on technical terms. If they argued on the sub-microscopic scale, however, they often focussed on the whole system rather than on specific molecules and their structure. Hence, students interpreted concepts like activation energy or reaction coordinate diagrams on the system level leading to unproductive reasoning. Overall, it seems that students seldom activate resources on molecular structures to argue about energetic changes in chemical reactions. Also, they rarely refer to the fundamental principle of energy minimisation to reason about the driving force of reactions. These results suggest that chemical reactions should be explained already in high schools on a molecular level providing a more explicit reference to energy as a function of chemical structures.

Evaluating and improving instructional quality is important in pre-service teacher education, given it is a crucial factor for students' learning gains. This process is complex and involves multiple classroom events with various interpretations. Criteria for instructional quality are rarely applied systematically in teacher education, leading to divergent evaluations and hindering comparable development. Comparability has rarely been researched in science pre-service teacher education. Therefore, we compared evaluations from 17 chemistry-specific advisors and 17 science pre-service teachers with regard to their choice of criteria, their respective rating and grading of a videotaped chemistry lesson, in Germany. Their evaluations were compared using the Science Education Perspectives (SEP) framework for instructional quality. Although advisors can be considered evaluation experts, our findings show differences in the choice of criteria, ratings, and how the lesson was graded within and between both groups. Pre-service teachers focused more on aspects of classroom and time management, and gave higher average ratings, whereas their advisors focused more on cognitive activation. Overall, 16 different criteria were used by the majority of participants. These criteria show a strong science-specific focus. Our findings have implications for science pre-service teacher education, showing a need for a common approach in evaluations, with extended observation periods.

With regard to current controversial public discussions about the credibility of scientific knowledge, it seems particularly important that students possess adequate ideas about the tentativeness of scientific knowledge, which is a key aspect of nature of science. However, international studies show that many pre-service science teachers tend to have naïve conceptions about the tentativeness and these conceptions turn out to be resistant to change. So far, no research was done, on the conceptions of German pre-service chemistry teachers about tentativeness. Therefore, two empirical, qualitative research studies were conducted. The first study with 50 participants was to investigate, which conceptions about tentativeness German pre-service chemistry teachers possess, what the origins of these conceptions are and if they are resistant to change. In a second study with 56 participants, it was examined how a more adequate and functional understanding could be promoted. Data were collected by using different methods, such as open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The participants' views about tentativeness were assigned to different categories. Results show that most participants held inconsistent or only partially informed views on tentativeness. The views turn out to be resistant to change, and many participants are not able to explain their ideas. And if so, their explanations are mostly restricted to scientific theories. Additionally, dealing with tentativeness unsettles some participants. To promote an adequate understanding, new approaches were developed, like the BlackTube activity. Additionally, instructions should focus on the durability of scientific knowledge. Furthermore, a differentiated reflection on different types of scientific knowledge seems necessary.

Current research on self-efficacy beliefs of interdisciplinary science teaching indicates shortcomings in facing recent teaching challenges in secondary education and corresponding valid instruments. Thus, we designed the Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Interdisciplinary Science Teaching (SElf-ST) instrument based on a pedagogical content knowledge model for science teaching. We ensured the factorial validity of ten factors. To bring construct validity down to a round figure, we examined convergent and divergent validity in this paper. For answering the overall research question regarding arguments for the convergent and divergent validity of the interpretation of the SElf-ST instrument's test values (and related hypotheses), we analyzed data of pre-service, trainee, and in-service biology, chemistry, and physics teachers (n = 590) in a cross-sectional study. While the strong latent correlations of the ten SElf-ST factors with self-efficacy beliefs of interdisciplinary science teaching in primary education (r = 0.40 - 0.63, p < 0.01) indicate convergent validity, the rather weak correlations with self-efficacy beliefs of general teaching (r = 0.17 - 0.54, p < 0.01), self-rated content knowledge in science (r = 0.13 - 0.40, p < 0.01), and perceived stress (r = -0.13 - -0.19, p < 0.01) support different divergent validity intensities. Thus, assumed relations within the nomological net surrounding the self-efficacy beliefs of interdisciplinary science teaching construct were confirmed for secondary education. In sum, we shed light on a rarely explored aspect of construct validity in science education research regarding self-efficacy beliefs. Doing so, we gained strong arguments that the SElf-ST instrument's test values can serve as indicators of self-efficacy beliefs of interdisciplinary science teaching in secondary education.

In recent years, serious games and game-based learning have received growing attention in educational contexts in general and science teaching and learning. They play an especially prominent role in higher education, where they are used to promote content knowledge as well as higher order cognitive skills and competencies such as communication, collaboration, or problem solving. Despite some known positive effects of serious games on learning, critical voices claim that the objectives of a specific game often do not match the learning objectives and that the games focus on entertaining much more than learning. Considering these arguments and some general guidelines of using games in (higher) education, we developed a game on typical chemical misconceptions based on the popular game "Activity©" using Participatory Action Research. The game was developed based on the contents of a seminar on misconceptions for pre-service teachers (M. Ed. students) in a northern German university. It covers seven content areas where misconceptions are most prevalent and therefore aims at contributing to pre-service teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). The students are supposed to draw or mime specific misconceptions. Initial trials in three university courses showed a very positive perception of the game.

Creativity is an important skill that will increasingly play a role in the future professional sphere, not only in arts and crafts professions but also in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) professions. It is precisely in this field that new methods and products have to be constantly developed. Therefore, the promotion of high creative potential needs to start at school. Extracurricular learning activities that prepare pupils for science competitions can also have an impact on this promotion. Since few studies have explored divergent thinking in school chemistry classes and extracurricular science competitions, this study aims to show differences in divergent thinking based on gender, parental academic background and prior participation in a science competition, using a validated test.

Teacher education needs to combine training in content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). One important part of PCK in science education is knowledge about school science practical work to promote learning by scientific inquiry and about the nature of science. In Germany, practical seminars and lab sessions dealing with "school-type" practical work are mandatory for any preservice chemistry teacher education program. Since practice in handling school-type lab equipment is considered important, courses regularly require attendance in practical sessions. These practical experiences are seen as irreplaceable by digital and video materials when it comes to the development of practical and manual skills. This paper reports on the replacement of a traditional course based in a face-to-face seminar combined with half-day lab sessions for a whole cohort of students. This course was replaced by an individualized, digitally supported, open lab learning experience for prospective secondary school chemistry teachers. The change was implemented due to social distancing rules caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Elements of the course structure are discussed and related to how students experienced the course.

Although fundamental chemistry acts as a prerequisite for fully comprehending imperative aspects of biology, Bielefeld University is one of three universities in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany that does not require majors or minors in biology education to complete classes in general chemistry, before fulfilling graduation requirements. A study was utilized to determine to what extent graduate students possess the chemistry skills essential for teaching the state-mandated biology curriculum. The assessed graduate students consisted of individuals with and without chemistry as their second elected subject. The chemistry skills of the individual graduate students were measured with a non-standardized knowledge test. The results of each test were computed using an evaluation form and specified point system. Results revealed that the majority of the graduate students without chemistry as their second elected subject possessed an insufficient (e.g., poor and failing) level of understanding for fundamental chemistry, characteristically essential for instructing biology lessons. The findings in this study and in previous research have established grounds for discussing potential methods of intervention and further investigation of this field, to better prepare biology education students for their teacher training and future careers.

(1) Background: In self-concept research, Likert scales are still relied upon despite the fact that they pose methodological difficulties for research in culturally diverse societies. This calls the validity of the data into question. In the present study, we develop a mixed methods design for culture-sensitive academic self-concept research. We test it in a study about chemistry self-concept with secondary school students; (2) Methods: Interview (N = 43) and questionnaire (N = 116) data were collected; (3) Results: The mixed methods approach allowed connecting self-concept with culturally shaped narratives: in the quantitative data, we found the well-documented gender gap in favor of boys. However, among the students with a Turkish migration background, the girls showed stronger chemistry self-concepts. The interviews suggested that girls with Turkish migration background find it easier to connect their chemistry learning to their personal life than the boys with Turkish migration background; (4) Conclusion: Based on further literature, we hypothesize that these differences might be due to a less masculine conception of science in the Turkish society. The mixed methods approach allows detecting measurement bias, which increases the validity of science self-concept data in culturally diverse contexts.

Students today are increasingly engaged in the use of digital information and communication technologies. The Internet continues to grow and more and more young people are using it worldwide. Educational practices, however, have been slow to adapt to the corresponding developments. For example, Internet forums are generally ignored in most educational practices, including chemistry education, although they are often used to find new information by everyday people. The question therefore arises: Why are such media not used to provoke and promote science or chemistry teaching and learning, while simultaneously developing critical scientific media literacy? To understand how the younger generation learns via Internet forums, this article looks at a survey of Internet forum usage behavior by lower and upper secondary school students (age range 12-17) in relation to chemistry-specific content. The findings are then contrasted with an analysis of user behavior. The final analysis revealed that students are open and critical when using Internet forums, even though such learning is mostly unconnected to formal education. These results can inform science and chemistry teaching by focusing teaching and learning more on Internet forums in order to employ them as an educational medium in science class.

German preservice teachers always study two teaching subjects instead of only one. This offers an almost paradigmatic approach for the investigation of effects of specific subject combinations on professional competence. So far, few studies focused on potential beneficial effects or risks on preservice teachers' motivational orientations, beliefs, and professional knowledge. In our exploratory study, we chose a cross-sectional quasi-experimental design to compare preservice teachers studying a combination of biology and chemistry to those who study only one of these two subjects and any other, as it is expected that the differences between less similar subjects (such as chemistry and art) are greater than those between two science subjects. A total of N = 570 preservice teachers with a minimum of one of their subjects being biology or chemistry were recruited in 12 universities in Germany. Nonparametric analyses using Westenberg-Mood's median test show that preservice teachers studying both biology and chemistry score significantly different on some central aspects of professional competence compared to those who study only one of the two subjects and any other. However, advantages regarding motivational orientations and professional knowledge can only be found for the domain of biology, whereas in the domain of chemistry it does not seem to matter which second subject is studied beside chemistry. Furthermore, students taking both sciences show a significantly lower educational motivation and corresponding self-concept, suggesting that dual science students' teaching and learning beliefs are less education-focused than those of students combining one science with a social or language subject. Our findings regarding synergy effects of the dual study of different natural sciences on aspects of professional knowledge can be relevant beyond the specific German context, that is, they can help to supplement or restructure a university curriculum.

Citizen science is an expanding field in public education and learning and can bridge the gap between science and society. This benefits not only just citizen learning and scientific research, but also earlier learning in formal science education. Citizen science can foster an understanding of engagement with science as well as the perception of the relevance of scientific topics. Based on a review of several citizen science projects in school contexts, potential learning outcomes are identified, showing that citizen science can enhance aspects including pupils' motivation, interest and knowledge as well as their scientific and communication skills. Project designs with a high level of pupil involvement are found to be particularly promising in terms of achieving learning objectives. However, curricular standards require the thorough preparation of citizen science projects to enable the development of their full potential for all participants.

Building scientific arguments is a central ability for all scientists regardless of their specific domain. In organic chemistry, building arguments is a necessary skill to estimate reaction processes in consideration of the reactivities of reaction centres or the chemical and physical properties. Moreover, building arguments for multiple reaction pathways might help students overcome the tendency toward one-reason decision-making and offer them an authentic perspective on organic processes. Reasoning about multiple alternative organic reaction pathways requires students to build arguments and then judge and weigh the plausibility of these pathways. However, students often struggle to build strong arguments and use scientific principles appropriately to justify their claims. In the present study, the argumentation patterns of 29 chemistry majors students were analysed using a simplified version of Toulmin's argumentation model (claim-evidence-reasoning). The students solved various tasks related to alternative reaction pathways of a substitution reaction. They supported their claims with evidence and justified the evidence through reasoning. We investigated (a) the extent to which the students use evidence and reasoning in their argumentation (referred to as their argumentation approach), (b) how students with different argumentation approaches rationalised changes in their initial claims, and (c) how students used reasoning to justify their arguments. The results indicate that students need further support to appropriately use evidence and reasoning and to apply conceptual knowledge to build well-grounded arguments.

Academic self-concept is understood as a multidimensional, hierarchical construct. Multidimensionality refers to the subject-specific differentiation of academic self-concepts, whereas hierarchy refers to the aggregation of more specific facets of self-concepts into more general ones. Previous research demonstrated that students distinguish between their self-concepts in biology, chemistry, and physics, if taught as separate school subjects, as is done in Germany. However, large-scale international educational studies, such as PISA, often use a monolithic science self-concept measure. It is yet unclear whether an aggregate of subject-specific self-concepts is equivalent to a directly measured science self-concept. We assessed the subject-specific and a global science self-concept of 1,229 German grade 10 students. A higher-order factor model and a bifactor model demonstrated a very high correlation between the "inferred" and the explicitly assessed global science self-concept. Despite the high empirical overlap, we argue for a more nuanced view of the science self-concept, because statistical unity is not to be confused with causal unity. Moreover, from a methodological perspective, we used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to examine the mean structure and local structural equation models to study measurement invariance across science ability. Implications for the theoretical status of self-concept as a hierarchical construct are discussed.

The Participatory Action Research (PAR) model developed by Eilks and Ralle is very well known in science education. Over the years, many teaching and learning materials have been developed and implemented in German secondary schools using this method. The success of the model encouraged us to adapt it to the university level in order to develop university chemistry education courses. However, to do this, we encountered and conquered some challenges. The present paper is based on an advanced model of Participatory Action Research for developing university chemistry teacher training. For an advanced model, the focus is strongly on the extended development team, which contains people who were not part of the original team. The role of the students also changes. The ideas we used to further develop the model and implement it in practice will be described and discussed below.

Resources, resource efficiency and sustainability are one of the most important socio-political issues of today. We here present a best practice example for project-based learning aiming to change student's understanding and attitude towards sustainability at school level. In this project forty-two Year 9 students explored by themselves the link between resources, sustainability and the consequences for their own living environment. After an introductory school seminar the students washed gold in a stream using gold washing pans. Afterwards, the students developed a hands-on model how gold deposits form and carried out experiments concerning the physical and chemical properties of gold. At the University the students then analysed the chemical composition of rocks containing gold. The learning outcomes were measured by a self-designed questionnaire. The results of the questionnaire before and after the project show that the students understood that mobile phones are "a valuable gold deposit" and appreciated the value of the precious metal gold as a high-tech raw material. Before the project only 24% of the students thought they had a good or very good understanding of the interrelationship between resources and sustainability, but after the project the percentage has been risen to 96%. In addition, the students realized the value of recycling as an important aspect of sustainability. Only 5% of the students stated that they would recycle their mobile phones before the project, after the project the percentage has increased to 67%. The students took action in their school demonstrating a change in attitudes towards sustainability.

Practical work is an essential component of science education. However, insufficient approaches towards practical work can limit the potential it has for promoting both students' motivation and situational interest. One suggestion to solve this problem is to use alternative forms of lab instruction which are both motivating and easy to comprehend. One potential avenue is the increased use of pictorial information instead of pure text-based approaches. This case describes the use of comics in experimental instructions in non-formal chemistry learning. Comics visualise stories, are viewed as comprehensible to students, and also allow instructors to connect scientific tasks with authentic situations taken from students' lives. This paper describes a study of 6th grade students' perceptions (age range 11-13 years) of using comic-based lab instructions in a non-formal inquiry-based laboratory learning environment which focused on the chemistry of water quality. Semi-structured interviews of pairs of students were conducted during their visits to the non-formal laboratory. These 22 interviews (44 students total) were then analysed using qualitative content analysis. Overall, very positive perceptions by the students could be identified with respect to comic-based experimental instructions. Further research on the most promising use of comics in science education is needed.

The aim of this study was to investigate how to develop prospective chemistry teachers' TPACK and thus qualify them for the effective use of educational technology in their future chemistry teaching. For this purpose, we developed and evaluated a university seminar for the professional development of preservice chemistry teachers. We implemented this seminar at two German universities with students of two different expertise levels and courses of study. One group of students consisted of master students with an imminent internship semester while the other comprised bachelor students. In order to find out how preservice teacher training for digital literacy should be structured we measured the participants' development considering their TPACK competence in lesson planning, TPACK self-efficacy, and attitude. The results revealed that the seminar is suitable for increasing the participants' TPACK since we were able to improve the students' skills to implement educational technology into their lesson plan. Yet, the residual comparison between both groups shows a significantly higher increase in the master students' abilities. Regarding the TPACK self-efficacy and attitude, however, we were able to measure a significant increase for only the master students. Based on our findings, we suggest to allocate a seminar on educational technology in direct link to an internship and at a time during their studies when the teacher candidates have already had the opportunity to gain some prior knowledge in content, pedagogy, and subject didactics.

What features lead a student to choose sport science, chemistry, physics, computer science or musicology as their subject of study and the Saarland University Saarbrücken as their place of study? Empirical analysis shows that study conditions for students of chemistry, physics and music do not play an important role in selecting the place of study, but closeness to family and friends do. Only for students of sports or computer science are ranking results important/very important in making a decision. All students gave acquiring necessary theoretical knowledge for later life, differentiating themselves from competitors without degrees, and the expectation of better earnings as their reasons for choosing a subject. Where students' choice of studies was based on factors specific to the university, they reported higher satisfaction with their choices. Problems arising during the course of studies are generally attributed to the strenuous requirements of the studies.

Girls are underrepresented in mathematical and science Olympiads, global informal learning activities which often serve as stepping stones for admission to top universities and future STEM careers. The present article aims to investigate the role of implicit gender-science stereotypes on representation and achievement among participants of the German Chemistry Olympiad using a cross-sectional online study (N = 445, mean age 16.5 years, 51% female) entailing the Implicit Association Test and two motivational scales. This study was the first of its kind to use moderated mediation analysis to examine the effects of gender-science stereotypes on participation and achievement, mediated by the expectancy and value beliefs self-concept and topic interest. We found that in the female group, gender-science stereotypes negatively predicted the participants' willingness to continue in the competition. This relationship was mediated through topic interest. In addition, we found self-concept predictive for further participation among female participants, as well as for competition score among both gender groups. Furthermore, topic interest positively predicted male participants' willingness to continue with the competition. The results underline the negative association of implicit gender stereotypes with female participation in the German Chemistry Olympiad. Organizations such as the German Chemistry Olympiad should therefore critically reflect on existing gender biases within their own structure. In doing so they can create an environment that has the potential to heighten self-concept and interest for all participants equally. Our findings add to existing expectancy-value research in the context of gender differences in mathematics and science, supporting potential strategies toward gender equity.

Context-based learning has become increasingly influential in science education over the last 40 years. However, it is still unclear which types of contexts foster students' interests and learning achievements and are appropriate for science classes. While contexts are usually selected by teachers or curriculum developers, this study focusses on the students' perspective. The central aim of this research project is to analyse which context students choose for their science learning and why they choose a specific context. Therefore, a questionnaire study has been conducted in German grammar schools. The data analysis illustrates that students choose significantly different contexts depending on their individual variables like gender or individual interest in the subject. Additionally, it is possible to identify different reasons for selecting a specific context in chemistry. When comparing students' individual variables, significant relations between students' individual interest as well as their last grades in chemistry and their motives for choosing a context can be found. A cluster analysis has produced three clusters for describing students' explanation patterns for selecting a context. Overall, the results of this study allow first conclusions about the question which types of contexts ought to be implemented in science classes for specific groups of students.

Research in the past decades repeatedly revealed university students' struggles to properly understand physical chemistry concepts. In contrast to school, tertiary teaching relies heavily on the symbolic level, mainly applying abstract representations such as equations and diagrams. To follow the lessons and generate conceptual understanding, students need to connect those representations with macroscopic and submicroscopic aspects of the scientific concept depicted. For German first-year chemistry students, this increase in abstraction in a major subject of study contributes to excessive demand and demotivation (especially during out-of-class learning) and increases the risk of early dropouts. We designed a simulation-based learning environment (BIRC: Bridging Imagination and Representation in Chemistry) to suit the needs of first-year students and support them when learning physical chemistry at home. Our approach, featuring molecular dynamics simulations, requires students to assess their own mental models on the submicroscopic level and connect them to equations and diagrams on the symbolic level. Prior studies did already highlight the potential of individual BIRC learning units to foster conceptual understanding on specific topics. In this paper, we investigate if and how students of a broader sample use these learning activities as voluntary supplement beside regular coursework. During the term, we used think-aloud protocols, interviews and eight online questionnaires to analyse students' mental and emotional interaction while working on BIRC, assessing whether students perceived BIRC as a suitable, enjoyable and supportive resource to enhance learning. Via two paper & pencil achievement tests we examined students' retention concerning submicroscopic mental models and their ability to connect these mental models with symbolic representations 5-10 weeks later. Our findings indicate a cognitively engaging, comparably enjoyable learning process, which strengthens conceptual understanding and -- despite the necessary time and effort -- induces a broad number of students to voluntarily work on several units at home.

Global change phenomena, such as an enhancing greenhouse effect, acid rain or the depletion of stratospheric ozone, are considered as environmental problems. Contrary to the demands of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), three recently published studies have shown that German students still struggle with the acquisition of a scientifically acceptable understanding of these issues. These findings are in accordance with results from international research. Thus, the aim of the research project described in this paper is to enhance students' understanding of the greenhouse effect, acid rain and the depletion of stratospheric ozone. Using the model of Didactical Design Research, teaching and learning materials were developed and empirically tested in Design-Experiments with 14 students in two iterative cycles. The results show that students are able to develop a scientifically acceptable understanding of the atmospheric phenomena by changing their prior conceptions in different ways. For example they can acquire a scientifical understanding of the transformation of radiation in the process of greenhouse effect or they can describe the chemical processes of the formation of acid rain and ozone depletion adequately. Furthermore the results bring out that students struggle with obstacles, e.g. concerning the acquisition of conceptions about radiation or the correct use of technical language.

Chemical processing industry is progressively focusing their research activities and product placements in the areas of Grand Challenges (or Global Megatrends) such as mobility, energy, communication, or health care and food. Innovation in all these fields requires solving high complex problems, rapid product development as well as dealing with international competition. These factors should also be reflected in modern chemical and biochemical engineering curricula. At TU Dortmund University, chemical and biochemical engineering education has a long tradition in combining fundamental knowledge in natural science with engineering skills. Hence, the introductory course on chemical engineering already presents the subject in view of the aforementioned global challenges. Fundamentals in chemical engineering incorporating and related subjects, problem-based learning as well as design skills and problem-solving techniques are trained throughout later courses. Lectures, tutorials, and practical work are accompanied by a plant design project, placed at the end of the Bachelor curriculum. Here a group of 8 to 10 students develop a complete production plant. Students are often directly involved with research projects during the last phase of their education, i.e. Bachelor or Master thesis. With the final presentation and "defence" of their work, the students are well prepared for their industrial experience.

Teaching and learning chemistry or science, in general, could be described as building upon learners' existing conceptions. In order to support individual conceptual development, teachers should create opportunities for students to become aware of their thoughts. As this is very demanding in chemistry classroom practice with twenty-five or more individuals, pedagogical approaches and instructional support are needed. We argue for a collaborative learning practice that focuses on sharing and discussing individual conceptions on a chemistry-based phenomenon to build up a joint conceptual understanding. We state seven essential features for integrating this collaborative pedagogy successfully in classroom practice: (1) becoming aware of one's own conceptions; (2) externalizing individual ideas; (3) initiating comparable situation models; (4) ensuring active involvement of all; (5) offering each learner opportunities to reflect on each other's conceptual understanding; (6) integrating decision-making processes; and (7) offering the teacher measures to monitor the learning process. This paper is structured in three parts. Part I gives theoretical evidence to these essential features. Part II introduces the peer-interaction-method (PIM) as one of the possible collaborative learning approaches. The PIM is a pre-structured two-step collaborative learning method with instructional measures to meet the seven features. Part III reports a study with 136 students (grade 8 and 9), learning with the PIM in the context of combustion. The results give evidence to the features as being promising to foster individuals' conceptual development in science learning. The paper concludes with a discussion, limitations and an outlook for further studies and pedagogies in the context of developing conceptual understanding in collaborative settings.

Creativity has become an increasingly important competence in today's rapidly changing times. It is a central aspect of social development, but it is hardly discussed in schools and often neglected in the natural sciences. In order to promote creativity in science teaching in a targeted way, it is important to understand the perspectives and views of prospective teachers on this topic. For this purpose, a qualitative cross-sectional study was conducted with 83 German chemistry student teachers at the beginning and at the end of their study programme. We used concept maps and questionnaires to characterize changes in students' perspective on creativity in the chemistry classroom during their course of study. The quantitative analysis of the concept maps and the content analysis of student's proposition revealed similarities and differences in students' perspective on creativity between beginners and advanced student. All student teachers showed a diverse range of conceptions and views on creativity in general and in the context of chemistry education. Furthermore, almost all of the students had a positive attitude towards creativity and its integration in chemistry lessons. Although, there are no large differences in the perspective on creativity from beginner to advanced student teachers, subtle differences in students' perspectives revealed that advanced students had a more sophisticated perspective on fostering creativity in students in their prospective classrooms.

Preparatory or bridging courses are widespread and have a long tradition at universities. They are designed to increase students' academic success -- in particular of students with low prior knowledge -- and to reduce dropout rates. However, critics of these short and compact bridging courses complain that preparatory courses are not able to fill in content gaps sufficiently in a few weeks. Despite the high prevalence of university bridging courses, little is currently known about the sustainable learning efficacy of these courses. The aim of this study was to examine the short- and long-term effects of a traditional chemistry bridging course on students' success in the end of the semester examination of first-year chemistry students. For this purpose, students' learning outcomes were analyzed at the end of the two-week bridging course of students with different prior knowledge. Furthermore, it was investigated in an intervention-reference-group design whether students' exam results at the end of the first semester differ from participants of the bridging course and students who did not participate in the course. The results of the study reveal that students with low prior knowledge manage to close their content gaps in just a few weeks and to adjust differences in prior knowledge before starting their studies. At the end of the first semester, bridging course participants achieve significantly better exam results than their fellow students who did not enroll in the bridging course. However, mainly students with high prior knowledge seem to benefit from participating in the longer term. In the case of students with low prior knowledge, participation do not lead to better exam results compared to students without participation. Findings of the study can provide a basis for university teachers as well as university development experts to establish university bridging courses as well as to optimize existing offers.

Example-based learning often uses a design in which learners first receive basic instructional explanations of new principles and concepts and then examples thereof. In this sequence, it is crucial that learners self-explain by using the content of the basic instructional explanations to elaborate on the examples. Typically, learners are not provided with access to the basic instructional explanations while they engage in self-explaining. However, it is reasonable to assume that this established design is suboptimal to some extent. When learners cannot retrieve the required knowledge components of the instructional explanations from memory, they can hardly generate the crucial self-explanations. Against this background, we analyzed the effects of a potential remedy for this suboptimality. Specifically, in 2 experiments with high school students we tested the effects of providing learners with constrained access to the basic instructional explanations while they engaged in self-explaining. The constraints were that learners were instructed to review the instructional explanations only when they could not remember certain required knowledge components or when they needed to check their self-explanations. We found that the effects of the constrained review option depended on learners' academic self-concept. Learners with low academic self-concepts benefitted from the review option, whereas learners with high academic self-concepts were even hindered by it. We conclude that the constrained review option should not be provided to learners with high academic self-concepts. On a more general level, we furthermore conclude that a high academic self-concept can be an obstacle rather than a beneficial resource in certain learning settings.

While science self-concepts of secondary school students have received considerable attention, several important aspects of chemistry self-concepts have not yet been understood: gender relations, the impact of students' cultural backgrounds, and the impact of chemistry self-concept on learning processes. In the present study, (i) we could confirm our hypothesis that chemistry self-concept is strongly related to learning goal orientations. This part of the study built upon knowledge from educational psychology. Our results open the field for practical interventions designed to influence chemistry self-concepts. (ii) We investigated the gender relations in chemistry self-concept with a special focus on students' cultural backgrounds. The results show that chemistry self-concept differs from science self-concept: the gender gap traditionally described in the literature could not be found. Instead, the study suggests that an interaction of gender and cultural background might influence chemistry self-concepts. (iii) We were interested in the influence of the context of chemistry classroom and language on self-concept. In line with the literature, we found that a good relationship with the chemistry teacher seems to have a positive impact on chemistry self-concept. Also, the perception of chemistry language and chemistry self-concepts were strongly correlated. Suggestions are made for practical interventions based on these findings.

The debate on the use of pesticides is very current in the public media when it comes to topics such as organic farming, bee mortality, and the use of glyphosate. The broad range of pesticide applications and their potential environmental impact makes pesticides an interesting topic for science education in general and for chemistry teaching in particular. This is particularly true when conventional pesticide use is contrasted with current chemistry research efforts to develop alternatives based on the ideas of green chemistry. This paper discusses the potential relevance of pesticides for chemistry education in connection with education for sustainable development. It gives a brief outlook on pesticides in science teaching and connects the topic to socio-scientific issue-based chemistry education. A case study which developed a lesson plan for secondary school students is presented here. It defines pesticides, before focusing on the development of green pesticides as potential alternatives to current products. The lesson is focusing learning about chemistry rather than learning of chemistry in the means that the lesson introduces quite young chemistry learners (age range 15-17) to ideas of green and sustainable chemistry and how green alternatives in chemistry can be assessed and compared to traditional alternatives. Video vignettes of a scientist are used to introduce the topic to students. Finally, both glyphosate as a conventional, industrial pesticide and orange oil as an example of a green pesticide are compared using spider chart diagrams. The lesson plan was cyclically designed by a group of ten chemistry teachers using participatory action research. It was piloted with the help of secondary school chemistry student teachers and then tested in five German secondary school classes (grades 10/11). The use of the spider charts was regarded as especially helpful by the learners, most of whom felt that they had been able to understand the controversy surrounding pesticides.

Research has shown that students' science capital has a large impact on their science aspirations and their development of science identities. In this study, we apply the notion of science capital to chemistry education in order to investigate how students make use of science capital in the field of chemistry. We define chemistry capital as a person's resources that help him or her to succeed in the field of chemistry (e.g., parents know chemistry content, sharing chemistry-related activities at home,...). We interviewed 48 secondary school students in Germany and conducted a thematic analysis. It reveals the following. (i) Chemistry capital in the home environment is unevenly distributed. Students who do not have family members who can connect with the mainstream conception of chemistry tend to be concentrated in schools with the lowest entry requirements ("Hauptschulen," lower secondary education). Chemistry capital, therefore, tends to be reproduced. (ii) In most cases, families' chemistry capital translates into students' individual chemistry capital. This shows up in a multitude of links between families' chemistry capital and students' individual chemistry capital. (iii) The German school structures tend to aggravate the existing inequalities: this tends to deprive the students from "Hauptschulen" of qualified chemistry teachers. (iv) In some exceptional cases, students acquire chemistry capital independently from their families' capital. They do so either by following chemistry-related YouTube channels or by developing a chemistry identity as part of a general learner identity. In order to reduce the existing inequalities, there is an urgent need to provide "Hauptschulen" in Germany with qualified teaching staff for chemistry. If this precondition is met, teaching approaches that focus on identity building and engaging students and their parents in a dialogue about chemistry could potentially be fruitful.

Participation in science is unevenly distributed among secondary school students, depending on gender, social class, and ethnicity. In the present study, the influence of the home environment on students' chemistry self-concept is investigated as a factor for explaining participation in science. For this, the sociological lens of chemistry capital is employed. A mixed methods study (N=48) was conducted using quantitative data about self-concept and related variables (need for cognition, incremental theory, perception of language) and qualitative interview data on chemistry capital. The data suggest that chemistry self-concept is not related to chemistry capital in quantitative terms. However, the investigation of the qualitative dimensions suggests that chemistry capital in the home environment might change the frame of reference against the backdrop of which students interpret their abilities. We propose the interpretation that students compare their abilities in chemistry with significant others at home. If parents possess chemistry capital, this might lead to more negative evaluations of their abilities which can be counterbalanced by comparisons with classmates. If parents do not possess chemistry capital, the students might perceive themselves as more competent. Further investigations are needed to test this hypothesis. The results and the integrative mixed method approach will be discussed.

The need to develop clean-energy storage systems, harvesting technologies, and new functional materials are but a few of the many contemporary challenges in the domain of science today. To address these challenges, problem solving has become a key skill of the 21st century. It is generally documented, however, that experts and students differ in terms of their problem-solving skills. Experts in a domain are fluent in the use of different resources to solve domain-specific problems, whereas students stumble when using formulas, devices, or measurement methods. In most cases, the students are not aware if and why the resources are appropriate to solve the given problem. To acquire expertise in a domain, it is necessary to become fluent in the domain-specific resources. This means being aware of various resources and how they can be used reflectively in problem solving. In this study, we investigated how students' awareness of various domain-specific resources developed within minimally guided, authentic research projects in an undergraduate materials chemistry course that focuses on crystal structures and its characterisation. By monitoring participants' problem solving through audio-diaries and in-depth qualitative interview data, we examined to what extent their awareness of domain-specific resources developed. We further characterised productive moments of failure and uncertainty during students' problem-solving processes that influenced their awareness. Thick descriptions of these moments facilitate understanding of how students' awareness develops in a minimally guided, authentic learning environment and how students can become fluent in a given domain.

Phosphates are essential components of any efficient fertilizer. Natural phosphate rock is, however, not available in every part of the world. According to the European Commission, phosphate rock has high economic importance as well as a certain supply risk--at least for Europe. For these reasons, environmental technology research has received a great attention from the stakeholders that provided support in developing processes for recovering phosphate from wastewater and sewage sludge to help to close the phosphate cycle and reduce potential risks, including eutrophication and its influence on the environment. In this paper, we present a design case study of integrating the idea of phosphate recovery into chemistry education via a nonformal learning experience for high school students in Germany. The paper discusses a series of experiments and shows how they were embedded through interdisciplinary curriculum development.

The "International Research Experience for Students (IRES)" at Doane University (DU) located in Crete, Nebraska, exposed undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) students to international research at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) in Germany. The international collaboration team included three undergraduate researchers per year from DU, one faculty member and one postdoctoral fellow from DU, two faculty mentors at KIT, and several graduate, post-doctoral, and technical staff at KIT. Prior to departure to Germany, the students received extensive research training, as well as culture and language preparation from the mentors at DU. While in Germany, the students received an in-depth orientation to Karlsruhe, Germany, Europe, the research setting at KIT, and the international collaborators. The eight week summer projects over three years involved nanolithography, nano- to microsized array fabrication, organic synthesis using click chemistry, and surface modifications for sensing and other biomedical research applications. When the students returned from Germany, they continued to conduct research at DU and train other undergraduate students using the expertise acquired from KIT. The DU research students, including the IRES scholars, learned oral and written communication skills. They presented their KIT and DU research results at weekly seminars and at local and national meetings. An external assessment firm evaluated the program, the students, and mentors on a yearly basis before and after the summer research. This enabled all participants to continuously improve the learning objectives and the program execution including three program adjustments implemented in year 2 or 3. The survey data shows that the IRES program provided an enriching experience for the students in research and international culture and established a successful base of collaboration for mentors.