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Although extant studies have examined the factors affecting the formation of public–private partnerships (PPPs) for urban public service delivery, few have conducted case studies on how institutional and strategic complexities have been addressed in service PPPs that recur across a geographical area. This article applies a perspective of collaborative governance to studying Mobike bicycle-sharing services in four Chinese cities: Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen. Policy learning and regulations address two complexities. Four pathways to the formation of PPPs emerged from comparative case studies: spontaneous market-driven, regulation-driven, innovation-driven and active governance-driven. Shared value and trust, interaction, policy reinvention and joint actions are embedded in these pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]