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Prior research explored the individual contributions of grandparents, domestic workers, and preschool institutions in supporting maternal employment, yet few have examined them simultaneously. More importantly, the increasing diversity and multiplicity in childcare arrangement throughout different stages of childrearing has been largely overlooked. Utilizing data from the Hong Kong Panel Study of Social Dynamics (HKPSSD), this study examines the effects of diverse childcare combinations on women's labor supply from a life course perspective. Our findings reveal that mothers with younger children are considerably less likely to remain in the workforce and work fewer hours than their childless counterparts. Nevertheless, grandparental co-residence, outsourcing and center-based care can all significantly alleviate such motherhood penalty, albeit to different extents. Notably, during the initial years of motherhood, solely relying on either grandparental care or center-based care yields limited effects, but these options become advantageous for mothers when paired with assistance from domestic workers. These findings highlight the potential for policy interventions that directly subsidize parents for marketized approaches to childcare, particularly in societies experiencing a decline in multigenerational households and rising costs for formal childcare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupying public spaces can be an effective tactic for conveying a semantic message of protest and gaining wider support; however, it may also severely disrupt the everyday lives of non‐participants and causes a backfire. Therefore, it remains unclear whether and how the occupy movements have shifted political attitudes among the general public. Bringing a social‐spatial perspective to the case of the Occupy Central Movement (OCM) in Hong Kong, this study investigates how the attitudinal impact of occupation has varied according to people's spatial proximity to the protest sites. Using two waves of individual‐level panel data collected right before and after the OCM and detailed geo‐information on the respondents' home addresses and the occupied areas, we apply a difference‐in‐differences (DIDs) design to identify the causal link between space and attitudes. In addition, propensity score matching (PSM) methods are used to ensure the comparability of nearby and faraway residents. The results show that after the OCM, residents living near the occupied areas not only maintained their support for the pro‐democracy camp but also became more liberal as compared to faraway residents. This phenomenon can be explained by the "on‐site" effect, which suggests that the direct exposure to protestors' solidarity and the repressive actions of authorities arouse bystanders' sympathy for the protestors and support for their political cause. Such influence appears to be long‐lasting and can be evidenced by the local election results after the protest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]