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This paper comprises the stochastic frontier model which has been applied to measure the technical efficiency of skilled and unskilled labour. By considering the certain input variables listed in the cost of cultivation suggested by the Commission of Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) for Indian states during the main cropping season. Result of the study shows that the evaluated average technical efficiency estimates have been found between 71 to 84% for both type of labour. Factors i.e. use of seeds (77% efficient), fertilizers (29% inefficient), manure (3% efficient), land, human (9% efficient), attached (10% efficient) and casual (103% efficient) labor, animal labor (is between 1 to 4% efficient), hired machine (33% inefficient), owned machine (7% efficient), insecticides (20% efficient), irrigational cost (31% efficient), fixed cost (36% inefficient) and operational cost (197% inefficient) have a significant at 1, 5 and 10% level of significance¹. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The defense and peace literature have focused mainly on the military-growth nexus, with little attention paid to the environmental sustainability agenda, which is impacted by increased global arms transfers. The supply of lead-containing ammunition generates complex gas mixtures (including CO2 emissions) and particulates that harm the healthcare sustainability agenda. Based on the significance of the subject matter, the study uses the Indian economy as a case study, with a significant rate of arms transfers associated with higher carbon emissions. The study analyzed data from more than four decades, from 1975 to 2020. Data on arms imports, military personnel, and military expenditures are used to evaluate the 'ammunition emissions function'. It corresponds to the three research hypotheses, namely, the 'emissions-defense burden hypothesis' (arms transfers increase carbon emissions), the 'emissions-cleaner hypothesis' (arms transfers reduce carbon emissions), and the 'emissions-asymmetric hypothesis' (positive and negative shocks of arms transfers either support the 'defense burden hypothesis' or 'cleaner hypothesis'). The non-linear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) results confirmed the 'emissions-defense burden hypothesis' in the long run, as positive and negative shocks from arms imports increase carbon emissions. However, in the short run, positive arms imports increase carbon emissions while negative arms imports decrease carbon emissions. Furthermore, the findings supported the 'emissions-cleaner hypothesis' in the relationship between armed forces personnel and carbon emissions. The findings imply that the positive and negative shocks experienced by armed forces personnel reduce carbon emissions in the short and long run. Positive shocks to military spending support the 'emissions-defense burden hypothesis' in the short run; however, the results vanished when negative shocks to military spending supported the 'emissions-spillover hypothesis' (lowering military spending reduces carbon emissions and increases economic productivity) in the short and long run. The country's unsustainable economic activities are viewed as a negative factor contributing to long-term carbon emissions increases. The negative shocks of armed forces personnel and positive arms imports would almost certainly have a significant long-term impact on carbon emissions. As a result, the 'treadmill theory of destruction' has been confirmed in a country. The study concludes that lead-free ammunition and managing ammunition safety are beneficial to a country's environmental sustainability agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of quality institutions on growth-environmental nexus is a generally ignored topic, especially in South Asia economies affiliated with the belt and road initiatives (BRIs). To fill this gap, we have examined the effect of BRI policy, economic freedom (EF), and institutional quality (IQ) on growth-environmental nexus in the South Asian region from 1984 to 2019. We have used CO 2 emission as a proxy for the environment in this study. To prevent variable bias, we also included energy consumption (EN) and trade openness (TO) as key factors in the model. To solve the problem of cross-sectional dependence, we have used the second-generational unit root test. The results of unit root tests indicate that the variable IQ is stationary at the level and other variables are stationary at the first difference. Furthermore, all of the variables are cointegrated, according to the panel cointegration test. Thus, we have used the panel autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) method to estimate the long-run (LR) and short-run (SR) impact of response factors on economic growth. Furthermore, this research utilized the Granger causality test among the selected variables to inquire into the causalities. The basic findings are as follows: (i) A significantly positive interaction variable (CO 2 IQ) among CO 2 and IQ suggests that effective and fair political institutions are critical for increasing economic development and decreasing CO 2 emissions simultaneously. (ii) Economic growth is invigorated by energy consumption, trade, economic freedom, and institutional quality. (iii) Since 2013, more significant economic growth has been stimulated by BRI policy in BRI-associated countries; thus, both the SR and LR results are significantly positive. Hence, it is essential to improve the quality of institutions to reduce carbon emissions during economic growth., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This study analyzes the relationship between globalization, energy consumption, and economic growth among selected South Asian countries to promote the green economy and environment. This study also finds causal association between energy growth and nexus of CO 2 emissions and employed the premises of the EKC framework. The study used annual time series analysis, starting from 1985 to 2019. The data set has been collected from the World Development Indicator (WDI). The result of a fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) method describes a significantly worse quality environment in the South Asian region. The individual country as Bangladesh shows a positively significant impact on the CO 2 emissions and destroys the level of environment regarding non-renewable energy and globalization index. However, negative and positive growth levels (GDP) and square of GDP confirm the EKC hypothesis in this region. This study has identified the causality between GDP growth and carbon emission and found bidirectional causality between economic growth and energy use., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)