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Introduction:Mumps is a highly contagious viral infection affecting the salivary glands, primarily caused by the mumps virus, a member of the Paramyxoviridae family. Despite being a self-limiting disease, mumps can lead to severe complications such as meningitis, encephalitis, orchitis, oophoritis, and permanent hearing loss. The introduction of the MMR vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of mumps globally, but outbreaks continue to occur, particularly in areas with low vaccination coverage. In India, mumps is not a notifiable disease, and the vaccine is not included in the Universal Immunization Program (UIP), leading to underreporting and insufficient control measures. This study aims to analyze the recent trends in mumps cases in a paediatric population in Vijiyapura town of Bangalore Rural district and emphasize the need for including the mumps vaccine in the national immunization schedule. Methodology:This study was conducted at the Community Health Center (CHC) of Vijiyapura town in Bangalore Rural district. Cases were collected on an Paediatric Outpatient department (OPD) basis from children presenting with symptoms of mumps between March and May 2024. The World Health Organization (WHO) clinical case definition was used to diagnose mumps. Data were collected from all children who visited the OPD and met the clinical case definition. Results:A total of 18 cases of mumps were identified between March and May 2024. The age distribution ranged from 3 to 14 years, with a mean age of 7.1 years and a median age of 7 years. The majority of cases (77.8%) were male. Clinical presentations included fever (100%), constitutional symptoms such as headache and myalgia (80%), swelling of salivary glands (100%), with (27%) having unilateral parotid swelling and (73%) having bilateral parotid swelling. Cough and cold were observed in (80%) of the cases. Conclusion: The study highlights the increasing incidence of mumps in the paediatric population of Vijiyapura town of Bangalore Rural district, emphasizing the need for the inclusion of the mumps vaccine in the UIP. Strengthening the surveillance system and healthcare infrastructure is crucial for better management and control of mumps outbreaks. Collaboration among government agencies, healthcare workers, parents, and the community is essential to implement sustainable solutions and prevent future outbreaks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is a highly contagious respiratory viral infection that affects all individuals, although neonates are considered to be the most susceptible populations; therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the clinical outcome and association between coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-positive mothers and newborns. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted at a dedicated COVID-19 tertiary care hospital in India over a period of 1 year. The pregnant mothers infected with COVID-19 virus were enrolled with their newborn baby up to the age of 28 days. COVID-19 test was done by using a rapid antigen kit and further confirmed by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Results Prevalence of COVID-19-positive newborns born of COVID-19-positive mothers is reported at 8.4%. Female:male ratio was found to be 1:1.2. Raised D-dimer (88.9%) and C-reactive protein (88.9%) were the most common findings in COVID-19-positive newborns followed by leucopenia (33.3%). Among the COVID-19 newborns, Apgar score less than or equal to 7 and respiratory distress were found in 55.6 and 33.3%, respectively. Out of 9 COVID-19-positive newborns, two (22.2%) were expired, and out of 98 COVID-19-negative newborns, 4(4.1%) were expired. Conclusion This study revealed that severity of maternal symptoms is related to mortality of newborns. About 22.2% COVID-19-positive newborns expired, whereas 4.1% of COVID-19-negative newborns expired so risk of mortality increased among COVID-19-positive neonates as compared with negative ones. However, this study was conducted on a small sample size and further research with larger populations is needed to validate these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coxsackievirus-A6 (CV-A6) is responsible for more severe dermatological manifestations compared to other enteroviruses such as CV-A10, CV-A16, and EV-A71, causing HFMD in children and adults. Between 2005 and 2007, the recombinant subclade D3/RF-A started to expand globally, and a CV-A6 pandemic started. The study aimed to conduct whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of an isolated CV-A6 strain from currently circulating HFMD cases from India in 2022. Gene-specific RT-PCR and sequencing were used to perform molecular characterization of the isolated virus. Confirmation of these isolates was also performed by transmission electron microscopy and WGS. Among eleven positive clinical enterovirus specimens, eight CV-A6 strains were successfully isolated in the RD cell line. Isolates confirmed the presence of the CV-A6 strain based on VP1 and VP2 gene-specific RT-PCR. Sequences of isolates were clustered and identified as the novel CV-A6 strain of the D3/Y sub-genotype in India. The studies revealed that the D3/Y sub-genotype is being introduced into Indian circulation. The predicted putative functional loops found in VP1 of CV-A6 showed that the nucleotide sequences of the amino acid were a remarkably conserved loop prediction compatible with neutralizing linear epitopes. Therefore, this strain represents a potential candidate for vaccine development and antiviral studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic posed a major global health challenge. India has taken unprecedented and stringent preventive and precautionary measures against COVID-19 to control its spread. Public adherence to preventive measures is influenced by their knowledge and attitude towards COVID-19. This study was aimed to access the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) towards COVID-19 among Indian adults Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed on 576 participants from August 2021 to July 2022 in three villages under CHC Juan, Sonepat, Haryana using multistage random sampling. A pretested semi structured proforma comprising questions regarding knowledge attitudes and practices with respect to COVID-19 was used. Data were analysed using R statistical software. Results: Participants were male (61.8%) & married (89.6%) & the mean (SD) age was 43.11 (15.66) years. Participants had overall good knowledge of COVID-19 as 82.6% knew that the disease was contagious. The most common symptoms of this disease reported by participants were cough, fever, body ache, difficulty in breathing in sequence. Almost 90% had positive attitude about receiving vaccine against COVID-19. Most participants washed their hands (92.4%) and used a facemask (92%), avoided crowded places (88.9%) to safeguard self from COVID-19 infection. Conclusion: The knowledge on COVID-19 preventive measures was good and majority held positive attitude and practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, widespread foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks occurred in 2021. The objective of this study was to identify genetic lineages and evaluate the antigenic relationships of FMD virus (FMDV) isolates gathered from outbreaks reported between 2019 and 2022. Our study shows that the lineages O/ME–SA/Ind2001e and the O/ME–SA/Cluster-2018 were both responsible for the FMD outbreaks on an epidemic scale during 2021. This observation is in contrast to earlier findings that suggested epidemic-scale FMD outbreaks in India are often connected to a single genetic lineage. Additionally, we report here the identification of the O/ME–SA/PanAsia-2/ANT10 sub-lineage in India for the first time, which was connected to two intermittent outbreaks in Jammu and Kashmir. The current study demonstrates that the O/ME–SA/ind2001e lineage has a strong presence outside of the Indian subcontinent. Furthermore, the O/ME–SA/Cluster-2018 was observed to have a wider geographic distribution than previously, and like the O/ME–SA/Ind2001d and O/ME–SA/Ind2001e lineages in the past, it may eventually spread outside of its geographic niche. For O/ME–SA/Ind2001e and O/ME–SA/Cluster-2018, the predicted substitution rate for the VP1 region was 6.737 × 10−3 and 8.257 × 10−3 nt substitutions per site per year, respectively. The time of the most recent common ancestor of the O/ME–SA/Ind2001e and O/ME–SA/Cluster-2018 strains suggests that the viruses possibly emerged during 2003–2011 and 2009–2017, respectively. Recent sightings of the O/ME–SA/PanAsia2/ANT10 virus in India and the O/ME–SA/Ind2001e virus in Pakistan point to possible cross-border transit of the viruses. The results of a two-dimensional viral neutralization test revealed that all of the field isolates were antigenically matched to the currently used Indian vaccine strain O INDR2/1975. These results suggest that the serotype O vaccine strain can protect against outbreaks brought on by all three circulating lineages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bovine lymphosarcoma is one of the most prevalent neoplastic diseases in cattle, which affects both dairy and beef animals. Serological evidence and molecular characterization of Enzootic bovine leukemia are reported from India, but reporting of juvenile lymphosarcoma in the calf is scarce. A four-month-old female HF Cross calf with depression, progressive weight loss, weakness, and enlarged peripheral lymph nodes were brought for treatment to the Veterinary Clinical Complex (VCC), SKUASTJ, Jammu, R.S. Pura, India. Peripheral blood showed leukocytosis, lymphocytosis, and normocytic, normochromic anemia. Blood smear and cytopathological examinations revealed the presence of atypically large lymphocytes with obvious clear cytoplasmic vacuoles and cleaved, reniform, amoeboid nuclei with unclear nucleoli. Histopathological examination of the affected lymph nodes showed the presence of a tumor that was characterized by proliferating round, distinct pleomorphic cells having minimal cytoplasm, prominent nuclei, and oval and round basophilic shapes. On the basis of cytological and histo-pathological basis, the present case was described as sporadic juvenile lymphosarcoma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of the VP1 gene sequence of the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) is critical to understanding viral evolution and disease epidemiology. A standard set of primers have been used for the detection and sequence analysis of the VP1 gene of FMDV directly from suspected clinical samples with limited success. The study validated VP1-specific degenerate primer-based reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the qualitative detection and sequencing of serotype O FMDV lineages circulating in India. The novel degenerate primer-based RT-PCR amplifying the VP1 gene can circumvent the genetic heterogeneity observed in viruses after cell culture adaptation and facilitate precise viral gene sequence analysis from clinical samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common childhood infectious disease, caused by enteroviruses (EVs) which can present with typical or atypical lesions. Although the disease is self-limiting, it can also lead to serious complications. In the era of polio eradication, it is important to understand the population dynamics of enteroviruses causing HFMD as one of the circulating strains may become dominant. Methods: It was a collaborative study carried out in the Department of Dermatology and Microbiology of a tertiary care teaching hospital. The throat swabs were collected from 132 suspected HFMD cases. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to detect the presence of pan enteroviruses, followed by genotype-specific PCR targeting Human Enterovirus 71 (HEV-71) and Coxsackie virus A16 (CVA-16) and CVA-6 for pan Enterovirus-positive samples. Follow-up samples were collected from 14 children in the 2nd week and subjected to molecular testing to detect enteroviruses. Results: Among 132 children suspected to have HFMD, 44 were girls and 88 were boys, and the majority of them 76.5% (101/132) were under 2 years of age. A history of exposure to a similar clinical presentation was present in 15 children. Of 132 suspected cases, 60 samples (45.5%) were positive for pan Enterovirus. The predominantly circulating genotype was found to be CVA-6 (31.6% [19/60]). There were about 10 cases (16.6%) which had co-infection with both HEV71 and CVA-6. Rash with fever was the most common presentation (57%). In most of the cases with HEV 71, 92.3% (12/13) presented within 3 days of illness to the health-care facility. Of 60 positive cases, 25% (15/60) of children had the atypical distribution of rashes in the face, trunk, genitalia, thigh, neck, and axilla and 16.7% of children (10/60) had the atypical type of lesion either only papular lesions or erythema multiforme. Out of 14 follow-up samples, 13 were negative for EVs; one was positive for pan EV in the 2nd week, however, the patient lost to follow-up after that. Conclusion: HFMD outbreaks in our region were caused by various genotypes of enteroviruses. No severe complications were seen in the affected children. Nearly 30% had atypical presentation either in the form of lesion or site. Robust molecular epidemiological surveillance of HFMD is required to know the strain variations and other emerging genotypes in our setup. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Reports of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome from developing countries are sparse. Recognizing PFAPA is often challenging in these regions due to a higher incidence of infectious illnesses and significant resource constraints. Herein, we present our experience from North India regarding the diagnosis and management of PFAPA syndrome. Methods: We reviewed cases of non-monogenic periodic fever syndrome diagnosed at our center from January 2011 to December 2021. A total of 17 children who fulfilled the Marshall criteria for PFAPA syndrome were included. Data regarding basic clinical features, treatment/outcome, and performance of the recently proposed Eurofever/PRINTO and Takeuchi criteria were analyzed. Results: Besides recurrent fever, the triad of oral aphthae, pharyngitis, and adenitis was noted in only 18% of patients. Episodes of exudative pharyngitis/tonsillitis were documented in 24%. These figures were lower than the values reported from developed countries. The Takeuchi and Eurofever/PRINTO criteria were fulfilled in 76% and 71% cases, respectively. In addition to antipyretics and supportive care, intermittent steroid therapy was the main treatment modality used. Additional treatment with colchicine (n = 3) and thalidomide (n = 1) was used successfully in a few patients. Before the diagnosis of PFAPA, all patients had received multiple courses of antimicrobials (without microbiological confirmation). These included multiple courses of antibacterials for fever, pharyngotonsillitis, and/or cervical adenitis in all patients and antivirals for fever and aphthous stomatitis in a patient. Empiric antitubercular therapy had also been administered in two patients. Conclusions: A significant proportion of patients with PFAPA seem to remain undiagnosed in the Indian subcontinent. Increased awareness and improvement in basic healthcare facilities are crucial in enhancing the recognition of PFAPA, which would eliminate the unprecedented scale of undesirable antimicrobial use in such children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in India, where circulation of serotypes O, A and Asia1 is frequent. Here, we provide an epidemiological assessment of the ongoing mass vaccination programs in regard to post‐vaccination monitoring and outbreak occurrence. The objective of this study was assessing the contribution of mass vaccination campaigns in reducing the risk of FMD in India from 2008 to 2016 by evaluating sero‐monitoring data and modelling the spatiotemporal dynamics of reported outbreaks. Through analyzing antibody titre data from >1 million animals sampled as part of pre‐ and post‐vaccination monitoring, we show that the percent of animals with inferred immunological protection (based on ELISA) was highly variable across states but generally increased through time. In addition, the number of outbreaks in a state was negatively correlated with the percent of animals with inferred protection. We then analyzed the distribution of reported FMD outbreaks across states using a Bayesian space–time model. This approach provides better acuity to disentangle the effect of mass vaccination programs on outbreak occurrence, while accounting for other factors that contribute to spatiotemporal variability in outbreak counts, notably proximity to international borders and inherent spatiotemporal correlations in incidence. This model demonstrated a ∼50% reduction in the risk of outbreaks in states that were part of the vaccination program. In addition, after controlling for spatial autocorrelation in the data, states that had international borders experienced heightened risk of FMD outbreaks. These findings help inform risk‐based control strategies for India as the country progresses towards reducing reported clinical disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There have been sporadic and periodic large‑scale epidemics of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) with cases at risk for significant morbidity and mortality particularly in Southeast Asia since 1997 and in India since early 2003. Method: We retrospectively studied 403 cases recorded from 2009 to 2019 and reviewed relevant Indian literature published between 2004 and 2019 to understand clinical, epidemiological, and virological attributes of this long‑lasting Indian epidemic. Result: There were 96.8% children and adolescents (M:F 1.6:1) aged 2 months to 18 years and 84% were aged <5 years. Adult family contacts comprised 3.2%. Only 12 sporadic cases occurred during 2009‑2011 followed by increased number from 2012 to 2015 peaking with 30.8% cases in 2013 and declining slowly until the year 2019 with small resurge in 2018. The major peaks occurred during summers with small peaks in autumns. Literature review showed 3332 cases presenting between 2004 and 2019 across Indian states with similar epidemiological trends whereas serotyping identified Coxsackievirus A16 (CV A16) in 83%, Coxsackievirus A6 (CV A6) in 17%, Enterovirus 71 in 4.1%, and multiple strains in 11.7% samples, respectively. Conclusion: The overall features of this long‑lasting HFMD epidemic; affecting children aged <5 years more often than adults, none or minimum neurological or pulmonary complications in few patients, peaks occurring during summer and autumn months, and identity of the pathogenic virus coincide with global trends. However, the continuous spread of the disease across the country appears in sync with pre‑epidemic periods of China and Taiwan. It calls for a continuous surveillance and making HFMD a notifiable disease in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts at regulating misuse of antibiotics in the dairy industry have been ineffective, especially in low- and middle-income countries, who also typically have high burden of preventable infectious disease, we propose a disease prevention-based approach to minimize the need and in turn consumption of antibiotics in dairy farms. Since the immediate environment of the animals is key to disease prevalence, we targeted the infrastructure- and operation-related factors in dairy farms and their link with prevalence of most common diseases and symptoms. We conducted four focused group discussions and a cross-sectional survey in 378 dairy farms to investigate disease prevalence and associated infrastructural (housing system, and manger shape), and operational (waste management, feed management, and type of cleaning agent) parameters. The most common diseases (Mastitis and secondary infections related to Foot-and-mouth disease) and symptoms (fever and diarrhoea) in the focus area were linked with the infrastructural and operational factors on the dairy farm with higher disease prevalence reported in dairy farms, where the animals were exposed to variations in diurnal temperatures or were hard to clean. We further used ML classifiers – Neural Network (NN), k-Nearest Neighbour (kNN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), and Random Forest (RF) – to corroborate the relationship between infrastructure and operations of the dairy farms and disease prevalence- The DT classifier on randomly sampled data could predict the prevalence of the two most common diseases (accuracy = 92%, F 1 -score = 0.919) Our results open new avenues for cost-effective interventions such as use of curve-edged mangers, use of rubber mats on floors, not reusing leftover feed etc. in dairy farms to prevent the most common diseases and symptoms in dairy farms and reduce the need and consumption of antibiotics. • Ineffective regulatory national action plans in LMICs. • Cross-sectional survey of 378 dairy farms in North India. • Disease prevalence associated with existing infrastructure and farm practices. • Using kNN classifier to predict most common disease and symptoms. • Prevention-based approach better at curbing misuse of antibiotics in dairy farms [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hand Foot Mouth Disease (HFMD) is one of the most common viral illness that is characterised by fever below 38.3°C, painful oral lesions on the tongue and buccal mucosa and macular, maculopapular or vesicular skin lesions on the soles and palms. Many viruses are implicated in HFMD, such as Coxsackievirus A5, A6, A7, A9, A10, A16 (most common), B1, B2, B3, B5, Echoviruses E3, E4, E9 and Enterovirus 71. The illness is usually mild and self-limiting. HFMD due to Enterovirus 71, is associated with a severe illness complicated by aseptic meningitis, acute flaccid paralysis, pulmonary oedema and heart failure. Onychomadesis is a very rare complication of HFMD, typically occurring three to eight week of onset of illness. This is characterised by the detachment of the nail plate from the proximal nail fold by a full thickness sulcus. It is postulated that viral infection causes inflammation around the nail matrix either due to direct effect or due to the deposition of immune complexes secondary to distal thromboembolism. Here, authors report six children of different age groups who were affected with onychomadesis during an outbreak of HFMD in the month of February to May 2022 in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. All these six children developed onychomadesis following HFMD, after a couple of weeks. Both upper and lower limb nails were involved. Other causes of onychomadesis like chronic illness, nutritional deficiencies, drug ingestion, periungual dermatitis, trauma were ruled out. Children were given supportive care and were followed-up. The changes in nails spontaneously regressed after a couple of weeks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in India with a preponderance of outbreaks caused by FMD virus (FMDV) serotype O. Out of the 11 global topotypes of serotype O, only ME‐SA topotype has been reported in the country so far. Lineage O/ME‐SA/Ind2001 and O/ME‐SA/PanAsia are documented as the most dominant ones in terms of the number of outbreaks caused by them. To understand the distribution of topotype/lineages in India and their antigenic behaviour during the year 2014–2018, a total of 286 FMDV serotype O viral isolates were sequence determined at the VP1 region, and 109 isolates were characterized antigenically. All the isolates grouped in the ME‐SA topotype, being distributed in lineage O/ME‐SA/Ind2001 (within sub‐lineages O/ME‐SA/Ind2001d and O/ME‐SA/Ind2001e), and a new group designated here as O/ME‐SA/2018 cluster. The sub‐lineage O/ME‐SA/Ind2001e reported for the first time in India during the year 2015, replaced sub‐lineage O/ME‐SA/Ind2001d gradually, which was dominating since 2008. During the years 2014–2018, the sub‐lineage O/ME‐SA/Ind2001e was found to be the most predominant one whose mean evolutionary rate was observed to be faster than that of the sub‐lineage O/ME‐SA/Ind2001d. The codon sites 45 and 85 of VP1 were found to be under diversifying selection in a large proportion of trees. The common ancestor predicted for sub‐lineages O/ME‐SA/Ind2001e and O/ME‐SA/2018 dates back to 2012 and 2016, respectively. The sustenance and spread of the new O/ME‐SA/2018 cluster need to be assessed by continued surveillance. The Indian vaccine strain O/INDR2/1975 was found to provide adequate antigenic coverage to the emerging and prevalent serotype O lineages. The trait association tests showed frequent virus exchange among different states, which could be an important confounder in the region‐specific assessment of effectiveness of FMD control programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has created the catastrophic situation, it has crippled all the economic activities and seized off the operations of food supply chain (FSC). Disrupted FSC escalated the societal concerns related to food safety and security. The purpose of this study is to consolidate various issues, exploring the perspectives associated with the agricultural practices, food industries and society concerns related with the FSC performance system dynamics amid of COVID-19 pandemic. Design/methodology/approach: To structure this work, a detailed research literature insight focussing on the key findings associated with the past disease outbreaks like influenza, avian flu, Ebola, bird flu, SARS, foot and mouth disease and ongoing phase of COVID-19, encompassing the perspective related with various agricultural and concerned supply chain practices is clustered. Furthermore, issues having relevancy with the notion of this work, sourced from platforms of print and electronic media have been incorporated to ground the reality associated with the impacts, for better visualisation of the perspectives. Findings: This study outlays the key findings which are relevant with the past pandemic outbreaks from the core of the research literature. It details the impact of the current COVID-19 scenario on the various FSC operations, focussing on dimensions allied with the industry, economic and society concerns. For the same, to mitigate the effects, relief measures focussing on the short- and long-term perspectives have been incorporated. Steps ramped up by the Government of India (GOI) to safeguard masses from the threat of food security, accelerate pace of the FSC operations and upscale operating capacities of the industries and agriculture practices have incorporated. Research limitations/implications: Presented work is persuaded amid of the COVID-19 lockdown restrictions hence it outlays the theoretical perspectives only. But, these perspectives portray the ongoing scenario's impacts, extending its implication to the people coming from the industry and academia background. This study can felicitate the government bodies to make them familiar with the various impacts which indented the FSCs, food industries and added woes to the society concerns. Originality/value: India is the second largest populated nation of the world, and outspread of the COVID-19 has capsized the FSCs and raised the various instances, making population vulnerable to the threats of food insecurity. This study encompasses effect of the FSC disruption by incorporating its effect on the food industries practices, societal issues and extending possible relief measures to restructure the FSC dynamics. As of now, study focussing on the Indian FSC concerns, detailing of impacts due to pandemic outbreak, relief measures to sail out of the hard times are not available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) remains a serious threat to the Indian livestock sector due to significant economic loss associated with it. Systematic vaccination of large ruminants over the years has lead to a gradual reduction in the number of disease outbreaks in India. However exposure to FMDV infection in small ruminants has been recorded during the past few years (Rout et al. 2013). Sheep and goat population have not been vaccinated so far against FMD under the FMD-Control program (FMD-CP). The present study highlighted the outbreak of FMD in small ruminants in Karnataka, India. Methods: During the period 2018-19, seven suspected FMD outbreaks among sheep population in Bellary and Tumakuru districts of Karnataka state were investigated. Tongue epithelium (oral swabs) and foot lesions (n=23) from clinically affected sheep and tissues such as heart, lung, liver, spleen, lymph nodes and kidneys from lambs during post mortem (n=67) were collected. All the samples were processed in the laboratory for the detection of FMD virus antigen by employing Serotype differentiating antigen detection ELISA and by multiplex PCR. Heart tissue samples were also collected in buffered formalin for histopathology study and processed by routine paraffin embedding technique and stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H and E). Serum samples from the recovered animals were collected and screened by NSP-ELISA and LPB-ELISA to check the antibody status in the affected herd. Result: A total of seven suspected outbreaks of FMD involving 688 small ruminants was investigated. The outbreak of FMD due to FMDV serotype O was confirmed by ELISA and multiplex PCR assays. Clinically, the affected adult sheep showed typical signs of FMD, while mortality in young lambs was observed without apparent signs of disease. Histologically, heart tissues from FMD affected lambs showed myocardial necrosis with marked aggregations of lymphocytes and neutrophils in the myocardium and perivascular spaces. History of FMD outbreaks in cattle and common grazing land for the livestock, as well as sheep within the reach of these villages, may be the major contributing factors for the outbreaks in sheep populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hand, Foot, and Mouth disease (HFMD) is a mild exanthematous and febrile disease occurs in children aged ≤10 years old. The present study highlights clinical, epidemiological characteristics, distribution of enterovirus (EV) types, and sub genotypes in HFMD cases reported during 2017 to 2018 in Western India. A total of 93 clinical samples collected from 68 HFMD cases were included. The presence of EV‐RNA was determined by 5'UTR based nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction followed by molecular typing, sub genotyping by VP1/2A junction or VP1, full VP1 gene amplification, and phylogenetic analysis. The study reports 80.64% (75/93) EV positivity and 94.66% (71/75) typing rate, with a predominant circulation of CVA16 and CVA6 strains. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of coxsackievirus (CV)A16 (57.7%), CVA6 (40.8%), and Echo1 (1.4%) strains. EV infections were predominantly observed in children aged 1 to 3 years old (43.9%). Although cases were reported throughout the year, peaked in July (15.8%) and August (24.6%) months and persisted till September (19.3%). All the CVA16 and CVA6 positive strains were genotyped using full VP1 gene amplification. All CVA16 Indian strains (n = 41) were clustered with rarely reported B1c sub genotype and CVA6 strains (n = 29) with E2 sub‐lineage. The study highlights the genetic characteristics of circulating CVA16, CVA6, and Echo1 strains in HFMD cases from Western India. The emergence of CVA16 B1c genotype and sub‐lineage E2 of CVA6 strains and their constant circulation further demands systemic surveillance studies on HFMD from different parts of India to facilitate the rapid diagnosis of CVA16 and CVA6 strains using the molecular and serological based approach and for intervention strategies. Highlights: Predominance of CVA16 and CVA6 strains in HFMD cases from western India. Circulation of CVA16 B1c sub genotype strains and CVA6 sub lineage E2 strains in HFMD cases, western India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype Asia1 is prevalent in India and is responsible for a minor proportion of FMD outbreaks. Globally, serotype Asia1 is grouped into nine different groups (GI-IX) based on genetic analysis. In India, only Asia1/G-III and Asia1/G-VIII have been documented so far. Phylogenetic analysis of recent serotype Asia1 isolates from India revealed the emergence of Asia1/G-IX. The Asia1/G-IX lineage shares recent common ancestry with Asia1/G-VIII dating to 2016. The root state posterior probabilities of Asia1/G-VIII are inclusive and there may have been either an incursion of the virus from Bangladesh, where it was first identified, or in situ evolution of the virus within India, which is an intriguing possibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Back ground: India has a huge resource of livestock and stands first globally in milk production, but reemergence of diseases like foot and mouth disease (FMD) causes a great concern and economic losses to the farmers. Three serotypes of FMD virus (O, A and Asia 1) are prevalent and serotype O was responsible for 80 per cent of confirmed outbreaks /cases in India. The highest incidence of the disease was seen in Southern region (31.5%) and during the month of September. Highest number of outbreaks (201) occurred in Tamil Nadu in the year 2007-08 caused by serotype O virus. FMD causes very high morbidity and mortality rate among young animals and the mortality rate is generally low in adult animals and seen with manifestation of infection limited to epithelial sites. However, In the present study an unusually high mortality among adult cattle due to FMD, complicated with Mannheimia hemolytica infection with specific myocardial lesions were discussed in several outbreaks of FMD in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Methods: Outbreaks of FMD occurred in various districts of Tamil Nadu during the period of October to December in the year 2013 causing large scale mortality among adult cross bred (Jersey cross and Holstein Friesian cross) cows, heifers and calves and detailed disease investigations were carried out. Samples were collected from ailing animals and dead animals for laboratory confirmation of the disease. The collected samples were subjected to isolation of bacteria, serology and molecular confirmation of the virus. Result: Affected animals showed characteristic lesions of FMD with multiple, focal to coalescing ulcers and erosions covered with shreds of epithelium and fibrin on the dorsum and lateral margins of the tongue, dental pad, hard palate, mucosa of lips and gums. Samples of vesicular fluid, oral and tongue epithelium and heart confirmed the presence of FMD type 'O' virus based on sandwich ELISA and multiplex PCR. Cultural examination of bacteriological samples revealed presence of Mannheimia hemolytica which was further confirmed by multiplex PCR. Out of 83 serum sample collected, 45 sera were positive for FMD by LPB ELISA, while 32 serum samples were positive for FMD by DIVA test. The sudden deaths among adult cattle and heifers during the FMD outbreak might be attributed to the severe myocarditis and the disease was controlled by following appropriate treatment and preventive measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The study aimed to determine the overall prevalence of livestock diseases in North Eastern Region (NER) of India, through a systematic review and meta-analysis of published data. Materials and Methods: The articles used for the study were retrieved from PubMed, J-Gate Plus, Indian Journals, and Google scholar, R open-source scripting software 3.4.3. Metafor, Meta. The Chi-square test was conducted to assess for the heterogeneity, forest plot (confidence interval [CI] plot) is a method utilized to present the results of meta-analysis, displaying effect estimate and their CIs for each study were used for searching and retrieval of livestock diseases prevalence data in India using a search strategy combining keywords and related database-specific subject terms from 2008 to 2017 in English only. Results: The prevalence of various livestock diseases are foot-and-mouth disease (21%), bluetongue (28%), brucellosis in bovine (17%), brucellosis in caprine (2%), brucellosis in porcine (18%), brucellosis in sheep and goat (3%), babesiosis (6%), theileriosis (26%), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (1%), porcine cysticercosis (6%), classical swine fever (31%), Porcine circovirus (43%), and Peste des petits ruminants (15%). This information helps policymakers to take appropriate measures to reduce the disease burden. Conclusion: This study indicates that the overall prevalence of various livestock diseases in NER of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present investigation focuses on examining the clinical, histopathological, and ultrastructural changes that occurred in pig, during an outbreak of African swine fever (ASF) in 2022 in Assam, India. The disease initially manifested as a per-acute case with high mortality but without any evident clinical signs. Subsequently, some animals exhibited an acute form of the disease characterized by high fever (104–106 °F), anorexia, vomiting, respiratory distress, and bleeding from the anal and nasal orifices. During acute African swine fever virus (ASFV) infections, elevated levels of pro-inflammatory IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF, CCL2, CCL5, and CXCL10 were detected in the palatine tonsil, lymph nodes, spleen, and kidney using qPCR assay. These molecular changes were associated with haemorrhages, edemas, and lymphoid depletion. Postmortem examinations revealed prominent features such as splenomegaly with haemorrhages, haemorrhagic lymphadenitis, severe petechial haemorrhage in the kidney, pneumonia in the lungs, and necrotic palatine tonsil. Histopathological analysis demonstrated lymphocyte depletion in lymphoid organs, multi-organ haemorrhages, and interstitial pneumonia in the lungs. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) further confirmed lymphocyte depletion in lymphoid organs through lymphocyte apoptosis and kidney damage with distorted tubules due to red blood cell destruction. Transmission electron microscopy reaffirmed lymphocyte apoptosis by observing chromatin condensation and nucleus margination in lymphocytes of lymphoid organs. These findings provide comprehensive insights into the clinical, histopathological, and ultrastructural aspects of ASF outbreak in pigs. Understanding the pathological changes associated with ASF can contribute to improved diagnosis, prevention, and control measures for this highly contagious and economically devastating viral disease. • The study delved into clinical, histopathological, and ultrastructural shifts during an ASF outbreak in Assam, India in 2022. • ASF initially presented as a per-acute case with high mortality and no evident clinical signs. • Elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine linked to haemorrhages, edemas, and lymphoid depletion. • Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed lymphocyte depletion and kidney damage. • Postmortem features in ASF: Splenomegaly, lymphadenitis, kidney petechial haemorrhage, pneumonia, and necrotic tonsil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serotype identification occupies the central part of foot and mouth disease (FMD) diagnosis workflow and vaccination decision tree. In this study, a reverse transcription-multiplex PCR (RT-mPCR) strategy wherein three assays with unique combinations of serotype specific primers targeting the VP1 region was developed to differentiate FMD virus serotypes O, A and Asia 1 based on differential size of the PCR amplicons on agarose gel. Their diagnostic performance relative to the mPCR assay in use in India was evaluated on 169 clinical samples and 210 cell culture grown virus isolates. The relative diagnostic sensitivity was found to be 99.69%, 98.78% and 99.08% for primer combinations 1, 2 and 3, respectively. These assays proved their worth by detecting serotype in three FMD suspected specimens that went undiagnosed in the existing mPCR and also by identifying multiple serotypes in the same sample. Their detection limits varied from log 10 2 to log 10 4 viral RNA dilution and from 100 to 0.1 TCID 50 virus depending on the serotype. The validated novel mPCR assays show promise to be included in the routine diagnostic tool-box to augment the efficiency of diagnosis of FMD virus serotypes that display extreme genetic diversity and a tendency of transboundary dispersal. • Multiplex PCR (mPCR) to differentiate FMD virus serotypes O, A and Asia 1 developed. • Serotype specific primers designed at VP1 produce differentially sized PCR products. • Relative diagnostic sensitivity were 99.69%, 98.78%, 99.08% compared to mPCR in use. • The assays detected serotype in additional FMD suspected samples and mixed infection. • The validated novel mPCR could be a back-up diagnostic to enhance serotyping efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) persistently infected ruminants in initiating new outbreaks remains controversial, and the perceived threat posed by such animals hinders international trade in FMD-endemic countries. In this study we report longitudinal analyses of genetic and antigenic variations of FMDV serotype O/ME-SA/Ind2001d sublineage during naturally occurring, persistent infection in cattle and buffalo at an organised dairy farm in India. The proportion of animals from which FMDV RNA was recovered was not significantly different between convalescent (post-clinical) and sub-clinically infected animals or between cattle and buffalo across the sampling period. However, infectious virus was isolated from a higher proportion of buffalo samples and for a longer duration compared to cattle. Analysis of the P1 sequences from recovered viruses indicated fixation of mutations at the rate of 1.816 x 10-2substitution/site/year (s/s/y) (95% CI 1.362–2.31 x 10−2 s/s/y). However, the majority of point mutations were transitional substitutions. Within individual animals, the mean dN/dS (ω) value for the P1 region varied from 0.076 to 0.357, suggesting the selection pressure acting on viral genomes differed substantially across individual animals. Statistical parsimony analysis indicated that all of the virus isolates from carrier animals originated from the outbreak virus. The antigenic relationship value as determined by 2D-VNT assay revealed fluctuation of antigenic variants within and between carrier animals during the carrier state which suggested that some carrier viruses had diverged substantially from the protection provided by the vaccine strain. This study contributes to understanding the extent of within-host and within-herd evolution that occurs during the carrier state of FMDV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• VP1 region nucleotide sequence for 26 Indian FMD virus serotype A strains determined. • Emergence of a novel lineage 'A/ASIA/G-18/2019′ in India and Bangladesh. • The node age for the lineage was predicted to be 2014 through tMRCA analysis. • Rate of evolution of the VP1 region estimated to be 6.747 × 10−3 substitutions/site/year. • AIND27/2011 could be more appropriate vaccine strain in the scenario than AIND40/2000. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) has engendered large scale socioeconomic crises on numerous occasions owing to its extreme contagiousness, transboundary nature, complicated epidemiology, negative impact on productivity, trade embargo, and need for intensive surveillance and expensive control measures. Emerging FMD virus variants have been predicted to have originated and spread from endemic Pool 2, native to South Asia, to other parts of the globe. In this study, 26 Indian serotype A isolates sampled between the year 2015 and 2022 were sequenced for the VP1 region. BLAST and maximum likelihood phylogeny suggest emergence of a novel genetic group within genotype 18, named here as 'A/ASIA/G-18/2019′ lineage, that is restricted so far only to India and its eastern neighbour, Bangladesh. The lineage subsequent to its first appearance in 2019 seems to have displaced all other prevalent strains, in support of the phenomenon of 'genotype/lineage turnover'. It has diversified into two distinct sub-clusters, reflecting a phase of active evolution. The rate of evolution of the VP1 region for the Indian serotype A dataset was estimated to be 6.747 × 10−3 substitutions/site/year. India is implementing a vaccination centric FMD control programme. The novel lineage showed good antigenic match with the proposed vaccine candidate A IND 27/2011 when tested in virus neutralization test, while the existing vaccine strain A IND 40/2000 showed homology with only 31% of the isolates. Therefore, in order to combat this challenge of antigenic divergence, A IND 27/2011 could be the preferred strain in the Indian vaccine formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An outbreak of Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) was reported in Navi Mumbai in July-October 2018. Of 15 HFMD cases, two had recurrences within a month while three had lesions extending to trunk. Coxsackie virus A6 and A16 were detected from 13 cases (CV-A6 from 10 cases and CV-A16 from 3 cases) indicating co-circulation of these viruses.. The present study highlights an urgent need of HFMD surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is an important transboundary disease with substantial economic impacts. Although between‐herd transmission of the disease has been well studied, studies focusing on within‐herd transmission using farm‐level outbreak data are rare. The aim of this study was to estimate parameters associated with within‐herd transmission, host physiological factors and FMD virus (FMDV) persistence using data collected from an outbreak that occurred at a large, organized dairy farm in India. Of 1,836 regularly vaccinated, adult dairy cattle, 222 had clinical signs of FMD over a 39‐day period. Assuming homogenous mixing, a frequency‐dependent compartmental model of disease transmission was built. The transmission coefficient and basic reproductive number were estimated to be between 16.2–18.4 and 67–88, respectively. Non‐pregnant animals were more likely to manifest clinical signs of FMD as compared to pregnant cattle. Based on oropharyngeal fluid (probang) sampling and FMDV‐specific RT‐PCR, four of 36 longitudinally sampled animals (14%) were persistently infected carriers 10.5 months post‐outbreak. There was no statistical difference between subclinical and clinically infected animals in the duration of the carrier state. However, prevalence of NSP‐ELISA antibodies differed significantly between subclinical and clinically infected animals 12 months after the outbreak with 83% seroprevalence amongst clinically infected cattle compared to 69% of subclinical animals. This study further elucidates within‐herd FMD transmission dynamics during the acute‐phase and characterizes duration of FMDV persistence and seroprevalence of FMD under natural conditions in an endemic setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and globally significant viral disease principally of cloven-hoofed livestock species. The present study describes the results of molecular epidemiologic investigation of FMD in pigs across various states of India between 2008 and 2014. During this period, a total of 37 clinical epithelial samples (vesicle/foot/snout epithelium) of FMD-suspected pigs were tested in a serotype differentiating antigen detection ELISA and samples found negative were further subjected to multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR). A total of 29 (78.37%) samples were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA and 8 ELISA-negative samples were subsequently found positive for serotype O in mRT-PCR. The VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the involvement of O/ME-SA/Ind2001 lineage in the outbreaks. The pig isolates clustered with the contemporary virus isolates collected from bovine indicating a close genetic relationship and therefore signifying inter-species transmission during the outbreaks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a major economically important viral disease of cloven-hoofed livestock globally. The FMD virus (FMDV) spreads widely in confined, cool, and humid climatic conditions. Being an RNA virus, FMDV is genetically unstable, and its genome evolution is highly influenced by mutational pressure. The climatic and environmental conditions have a significant impact on mutational pressure. The present study is a primary effort to establish a comprehensive relationship between climatic factors and the molecular evolutionary pattern of serotypes FMDV circulating in India. In this study, isolates of three serotypes (A, Asia 1, and O) were selected from six major climatic zones of India (Montane, Humid subtropical, Tropical wet and dry, Tropical wet, Semi-arid and Arid). Based on the full genome nucleotide sequence data, the codon usage bias, evolutionary and phylogeographic analysis was carried out. The study revealed that the codon use bias indicators in the FMDV serotypes differed significantly depending on the climatic zones. It implies that the selection and mutational pressure influence the codon usage pattern indices, with mutational pressure taking precedence in determining the codon usage bias of the FMDV genome. The tMRCA was estimated to be 1977, 1956, and 1953 for Indian FMD virus serotype-A, Asia 1, and O respectively which is around 32, 60, and 61 years before its actual identification in the field. Based on the evolutionary rates the serotype O is evolving rapidly compare to other serotypes in India. Virus transmission across the region was evident from the phylogeographic analysis. The integrated analysis of codon usage bias, evolutionary rate, and phylogeography analysis signifies the major role of mutational and selection pressure, implying that the FMD virus co-evolution and adaptations are highly influenced by climatic/environmental factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an extremely contagious and economically devastating viral disease of cloven-hoofed domestic and wildlife animals. The disease is endemic in India and other developing countries of the world. The disease is mainly characterized by the presence of vesicular lesions and "tigroid heart" in calves. The current report describes the novel pathologic findings along with the distribution of FMDV antigens in brain of young calves naturally infected with FMDV. The carcasses of 37 calves suspected to have died from FMD were presented for postmortem investigation. Out of 37 dead calves, 10 calves showed the clinical signs of neurological abnormalities like opisthotonos, muscle twitching and tremor in hind limbs, stiffening of the neck followed by death. Microscopically, the meninges were congested, hemorrhagic, and infiltrated with mononuclear cells. The various sub anatomical sites of the brain showed the varying degrees of vascular changes, perivascular cuffing, focal to diffuse gliosis as well as degeneration and neuronal necrosis, indicating the nonsuppurative encephalitis. The immunolabeling of FMDV antigen was demonstrated in the neurons, inflammatory cells, and microglial cells besides its typical locations. The neurons of the brain also showed strong immunopositivity for caspase-3, caspase-9 and p53 and negative for Bcl-2 and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) by both immunohistochemistry and western blotting indicating the role of caspase mediated intrinsic, and p53 dependent apoptotic pathway. Further, the TUNEL assay also confirmed the apoptosis in the neurons and glial cells of the brain of naturally infected calves. This study in calves establishes a basis for resemblance to other members of Picornaviruses, such as Enterovirus 71 and Coxsackievirus of humans and showing the neuropathological alterations along with the distribution of FMDV antigens associated with apoptosis in younger calves. • FMDV exhibits CNS affections besides vesicular lesions and myocarditis. • Meningoencephalitis, immunolocalization of FMDV antigens along with the molecular detection in the brain confirms the neurotropism of FMDV. • FMDV shares similar mechanistic of actions of EV-71 & Coxsackievirus of humans. • Caspase mediated intrinsic pathway and p53 dependent pathways play role in FMDV mediated neuronal apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype O Ind2001 lineage within the Middle East–South Asia topotype is the major cause of recent FMD incidences in India. A sub-lineage of Ind2001 caused severe outbreaks in the southern region of the country during 2013 and also reported for the first time from Libya. In this study, we conducted a detailed evolutionary analysis of Ind2001 lineage. Phylogenetic analysis of Ind2001 lineage based on maximum likelihood method revealed two major splits and three sub-lineages. The mean nucleotide substitution rate for this lineage was calculated to be 6.338 × 10 −3 substitutions/site/year (s/s/y), which is similar to those of PanAsian sub-lineages. Evolutionary time scale analysis indicated that the Ind2001 lineage might have originated in 1989. The sub-lineage Ind2001d that caused 2013 outbreaks seems to be relatively more divergent genetically from other Ind2001 sub-lineages. Seven codons in the VP1 region of Ind2001 were found to be under positive selection. Four out of 24 recent Ind2001 strains tested in 2D-MNT had antigenic relationship value of <0.3 with the serotype O vaccine strain indicating intra-epidemic antigenic diversity. Amino acid substitutions found in these minor variants with reference to antigenic diversity have been discussed. The dominance of antigenically homologous strains indicates absence of vaccine immunity in the majority of the affected hosts. Taken together, the evolution of Ind2001 lineage deviates from the strict molecular clock and a typical lineage evolutionary dynamics characterized by periodic emergence and re-emergence of Ind2001 and PanAsia lineage have been observed in respect of serotype O. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype Asia1 was first reported in India in 1951, where three major genetic lineages (B, C and D) of this serotype have been described until now. In this study, the capsid protein coding region of serotype Asia1 viruses ( n = 99) from India were analyzed, giving importance to the viruses circulating since 2007. All of the isolates ( n = 50) recovered during 2007-2013 were found to group within the re-emerging cluster of lineage C (designated as sublineage C). The evolutionary rate of sublineage C was estimated to be slightly higher than that of the serotype as a whole, and the time of the most recent common ancestor for this cluster was estimated to be approximately 2001. In comparison to the older isolates of lineage C (1993-2001), the re-emerging viruses showed variation at eight amino acid positions, including substitutions at the antigenically critical residues VP2 and VP2. However, no direct correlation was found between sequence variations and antigenic relationships. The number of codons under positive selection and the nature of the selection pressure varied widely among the structural proteins, implying a heterogeneous pattern of evolution in serotype Asia1. While episodic diversifying selection appears to play a major role in shaping the evolution of VP1 and VP3, selection pressure acting on codons of VP2 is largely pervasive. Further, episodic positive selection appears to be responsible for the early diversification of lineage C. Recombination events identified in the structural protein coding region indicates its probable role in adaptive evolution of serotype Asia1 viruses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent times, majority of the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in India are caused by serotype O Ind2001 lineage. The lineage has diverged into four sub-lineages (Ind2001a, b, c and d). We report here the genetic and antigenic analyses of nine Ind2001d isolates that caused outbreaks during April 2013–March 2014 in India. The length of the genomes of outbreak viruses varied between 8153 and 8181 nucleotides without any insertion or deletion in the coding region. Of the nine isolates analyzed antigenically against the currently used Indian vaccine strain INDR2/1975, eight showed good cross serological match (>0.3) indicating optimal antigenic coverage by the vaccine strain. An unprecedented deletion of 22 nucleotides between position 57 and 78 was observed in the 3′ untranslated region of one of the isolates without compromising the virus viability, which imply that partial distortion in SL2 of 3′UTR may not have influence on virus viability at least under in-vitro conditions. Recently the Ind2001 lineage has been reported from several countries including Libya and spread of this lineage across a wide geographical area needs to be monitored carefully to avoid any future pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 41 clinical samples (vesicle/tongue/foot/nasal epithelium) from Indian gaur, deer, spotted deer, nilgai, chowsinga, bison, black buck, elephant, sambar deer were collected in 50% phosphate buffered saline/glycerol medium (pH-7.5) during suspected FMD outbreaks. Supernatants of homogenized clinical samples were used in a serotype differentiating antigen detection ELISA and samples found negative were further subjected to multiplex PCR (mPCR). A total of 3/11 (27.2%) samples from Indian gaur, 2/7 (28.5%) chital deer, 5/5 (100%) nilgai, 2/2 (100%) black buck were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA. A total of 3 ELISA-negative samples from spotted deer, 2 from bison and 2 from sambar deer were found positive for serotype O in mPCR. The VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis indicated the involvement of both O/ME-SA/Ind2001 and PanAsia lineage of serotype O in the outbreaks. The wildlife species infected with FMD may pose further threat to the surrounding domestic livestock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype Asia1 was first identified in India in 1951 and since then causing significant proportion of FMD outbreaks in the country. In this paper genetic analysis of 219 isolates from India collected over a period of 48 years is described. Bayesian approach was used to estimate the date of divergence and evolutionary rate. Phylogenetic analysis indicated the circulation of three lineages (B, C and D) of which lineage B formed one genotype (I) which was prevalent during 1964–2000. Genotype II constituted by lineage C and D has been in circulation since 1979 till date. We observed dramatic form of clade turnover in serotype Asia1 in India. The time scale analysis indicated that the most recent common ancestors for Indian Asia1 strains existed around 77 years ago. The evolutionary rate of serotype Asia1 viruses (genotype II) from India was estimated at 5.871×10−3 substitutions per site, per year. We observed several connections in our phylogeographic analysis indicating intense flow of virus among states. The antigenically critical sites were frequently substituted and positive selection was evident at many sites. Maximum likelihood analysis suggested that the strains circulating in the country since 2005 were different from the genetic groups (I–VII) identified earlier and designated here as Group VIII. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) is extremely infectious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals including, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and water buffalo and also wild species. The disease is caused by Foot and Mouth Virus (FMDV) belongs to the genus Aphthovirus and family Picornaviridae. The serotype O is mainly related with cattle in the epidemiology of FMD in Karnataka. In Karnataka, during 1977 to 2014, all 30 districts have reported FMD outbreaks in animals. The present study was aimed to identify the district level spatial risk factors associated with the occurrence of FMD in Karnataka state of India. The 37 years' district outbreak data was collected from the Department of Animal husbandry and Veterinary Services, Hebbal, Karnataka, India. District wise sum of outbreaks was analysed using remote sensed variables along with densities of sheep, goat, cattle and buffalo. Stepwise variable selection was used to select important predictor variables. The predictor variables were selected used in fitting Poisson and negative binomial regression models. The two predictor variables were selected from the stepwise regression analysis. Based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC), Negative binomial regression model was the best model (AIC=411.27) compared to Poisson regression model (AIC=4656.72). Buffalo density and Bi-annual phase of NDVI was positively associated with occurrence of FMD in Karnataka. The results of the analysis suggest that the spatial variation in occurrence of FMD is influenced by the Buffalo and NDVI. The spatial analysis of FMD outbreaks and development of risk map will help the policy makers to target vaccination in high risk areas. This will help in reduction of the economic burden of the disease in rural farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in India and causes severe economic loss. Status of FMD in the country for five fiscal years is presented. Outbreaks were more in number in 2007-2008 than 2010-2011. Three serotypes of FMD virus (O, A and Asia1) are prevalent. Serotype O was responsible for 80% of the confirmed outbreaks/cases, whereas Asia1 and A caused 12% and 8%, respectively. Geographical region-wise assessment indicated varying prevalence rate in different regions viz; 43% in Eastern region, 31.5% in Southern region, 11.6% in North-eastern region, 5% Central region, 4.4% Western region and 4% in Northern region. Highest number of outbreaks/cases was recorded in the month of September and lowest in June. Emergence and re-emergence of different genotypes/lineages within the serotypes were evident in real-time investigation carried out from time to time. Continues antigenic divergence in serotype A resulted in change in the vaccine strain in 2009. As on date, all genetic diversity within the serotypes is well tolerated by the vaccine strains. Unrestricted animal movements in the country play a major role in the spread of FMD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protective antibody titles against FMD in bovine of some districts of Uttarakhand, India were investigated using LPB-ELISA. Overall seroprevalence of antibody titre against FMD virus serotypes O, A, and Asia-1 were 71.22, 68.22 and 53.23%, respectively, while in cattle it was 73.01,69.20 and 53.63% and in buffalo it was 68.01,66.46 and 52.80%, respectively. In male bovines, seroprevalence of antibody titre was 76.92, 71.15 and 51.92%, respectively, for serotype O, A and Asia-1, while in females it was 70.48, 67.82 and 53.52%, respectively. Among different age groups,maximum seroprevalence of protective antibody titre was found in 3 to <5yrs. Seroprevalence of antibody titre were highest in Udham Singh Nagar (91.75%) followed by Dehradun (70.00%), Nainital (53.33%) and Almora (36.00%) for serotype O. Similar patterns were found for serotype A and Asia-1 also. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O accounts for around 80 % of the outbreaks in India. Although Indian serotype O isolates belongs to the ME-SA topotype, circulation of different lineages has been noted. After its emergence in the year 2001, the 'Ind2001' lineage outcompeted the PanAsia lineage in causing serotype O outbreaks in the year 2009. Three isolates had an amino acid deletion at position 139 in the VP1 coding region and grouped with the 'Ind2001' lineage. The currently used Indian vaccine strain of serotype O covers all of the field isolates antigenically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study on the lncidence and epidemiological pattern of Foot and Mouth Disease with respect ID season, age group, breed and causative serotypes Involved In Kashmlr valley is reported. The rate of Infection was highest (47.12%) in July (SUmmer) followed by September (39.32 %) (early Autumn). The ram of Infection was 17.13% and 4.16% during spring and winter seasons respectively. crossbred cattle (Jersey x Local hill and Holstein x Local Hill) exhibited severest dlnlcal signs. Non-desa1pt local hill cattle were also affected, however pathological lesions were mild. The average age group of affected cattle with high morbidity and mortality was 0-2 years. VIral typing of the 65 samples of saspected material idenlifted 49 (75.28%) as FMD type "0" strain, 6 (9.23%) as type "A" and 3 (4.67%) as Asia 1 whereas no Virus was recovered from 7 (10.77%) cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype O is the most predominant among the endemic serotypes in India. A stable, full-length cDNA clone of FMDV type O1 BFS 1860 preceded by a bacteriophage T7 polymerase promoter was assembled in a plasmid vector pGEMR-7Zf(-). An ~8.2 kb PCR product was amplified from the cDNA clone and a full-length RNA was generated from it by in vitro transcription. Transfection of BHK-21 cells with the in vitro transcripts resulted in the production of infectious recombinant FMDV particles as evidenced by cytopathic effects (CPE). Further, characterization of the recombinant virus by immunofluorescence, microneutralization test (MNT), antigen ELISA, RT-PCR, plaque assay and electron microscopy revealed similarity to the parental strain. The immunogenicity of an oil-adjuvant vaccine prepared using the inactivated recombinant virus was tested in guinea pigs and cattle. Neutralizing antibodies were produced in both vaccinated guinea pigs and cattle. Vaccinated animals were protected on challenge. The results demonstrated that the recombinant virus was as stable and effective as the parental strain for the preparation of inactivated vaccine, suggesting the potential application of this strategy to make genetically engineered FMDV vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is caused mostly by Coxsackievirus A16 (CA16) and enterovirus 71 (EV71). Epidemic of HFMD has occurred in India only once in Kerala in 2003. We report here a recent outbreak of HFMD in three districts of West Bengal, India. Materials and Methods: A case detection system developed with 1) three private clinics in three districts; two at Howrah and one at Hooghly, 2) Pediatrics Department of two medical colleges in Kolkata, 3) 12 practioners of these three districts with 4) a central referral center at Department of Dermatology, NRS Medical College, Kolkata where all cases from this system were confirmed by a single observer. Pediatric Dermatology unit of the Institute of Child Health, Kolkata was another independent unit. Results: A total of 38 cases of HFMD were reported till 08.10.07. Age group ranged from 12 months to 12 years (mean 40.76 months, SD 29.49). Males were slightly higher than females (M:F - 21:17). Disease was distributed mostly over buttocks, knees, hands, feet - both dorsum and palmar or the plantar surface and the oral mucosa. Highest severity noted over the buttocks and the knee. Healing time for skin lesions was 6-13 days (mean 9.13 days, SD 1.93). Oral lesions were found in 33 (86.8%) cases. Conclusion: This outbreak far away from the initial one confirmed regular outsourcing of the virus with possibilities of future epidemics. Also the fact that EV71 induced epidemic is on rise in this part of globe is alarming for India. We hope this early report will be of help for strategic planning for a better management of the disease and prevention of dreaded neurological complications in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are severe international trade restrictions on foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) affected areas. Because of endemic nature of FMD, India started FMD control programme (FMD-CP) using mass vaccination in selected states including Haryana (year 2003). Although no significant incidence of the disease was reported after launching FMD-CP in the state but in order to participate in international trade of animal and animal products, veterinary authorities have to prove that there is no FMD virus (FMDV) circulation in the animal population, for which it is necessary to differentiate the FMD infected and vaccinated animals. For this purpose, an in-house indirect ELISA utilizing baculovirus-expressed FMDV non-structural protein (NSP) 3A was used to find evidence for virus circulation (prevalence of anti-NSP 3A-specific antibodies) by examining serum samples that were collected either before start of FMD-CP or after completion of third phase (Pre-4th) of vaccination in Haryana (India). A significant reduction ( P < 0.01) in prevalence of anti-NSP 3A-specific antibodies (possibly carriers) was observed 2 years after launching FMD-CP in Haryana. However, in cattle the percentage of animals with anti-NSP 3A-specific antibodies was found to be significantly higher ( P < 0.01) than buffalo, both before ( P < 0.01) and after ( P < 0.01) launching FMD-CP in the state. The findings of this study suggest that use of FMDV vaccine in cattle and buffaloes in endemic areas reduces virus circulation (carriers) in the vaccinated herds and that the current 3ANSP-ELISA can be successfully used to monitor the FMDV circulation in endemic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparison of nucleotide sequences at the VP1 coding region of foot-and-mouth disease serotype Asia1 viruses from India has revealed two genetic lineages with emergence of a genetically divergent group in recent years. In this study a simple, fast, relatively costeffective multi-primer RT-PCR assay to differentiate genetic lineages of type Asia1 viruses was developed. Efforts were made in the design of novel lineage-specific primers and in optimization of the multi-primer assay protocol in conjunction with the use of the serotype specific primer for confirmation of serotype Asia1 virus. This assay promises to be an effective tool in molecular epidemiological investigation of FMD in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), the most economically important disease of cloven-hoofed animals, is endemic in India. Sequence analysis revealed that phylogenetic grouping of type Asia1 field isolates on the basis of the large fragment of the 5′untranslated region (5′LF-UTR) was quite similar to that based on the sequences of the capsid-coding (VP1) region of the same viruses. The existence of two distinct lineages of type Asia1 suggested by the study on the VP1 region was further supported by the detection of a difference in length and predicted secondary structure of the 5′LF-UTR between the two lineages. Sequence variability between the isolates of the two lineages was also observed within the different domains of the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) around conserved motifs like the GNRA,- RAAA,- and the polypyrimidine tract. Certain group and lineage-specific signature nucleotides pertaining to FMDV type Asia1 in the 5′LF-UTR have been identified. The present study shows that the 5′LF-UTR of FMDV serotype Asia1 field isolates are variable in relation to the length and probable secondary structure of the IRES. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capsid-coding (P1) and 3A regions of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) type A field isolates including two vaccine strains collected during 1977-2000 were analyzed. In the phylogenies, the isolates were distributed into two previously identified genotypes VI and VII, with multiple sub-genotypes that are temporally clustered. Comparison of the antigenic relationships of field isolates with the two vaccine strains (IND 17/77 and IND 490/97) and the reference strains of the genotypes VI (IND 233/99) and VII (IND 40/00) indicated two broad antigenic groups that correlate with the phylogenetic groupings (genotypes VI and VII), and are highly divergent from the vaccine strains. The maximum likelihood method of selection analysis identified a number of amino acid sites within the P1 region to be under weak positive selection. Some of the positively selected sites were mapped at/near the antigenically critical amino acid sites of the P1 region, indicating host immune pressure as one of the important driving force behind the observed genetic and antigenic diversity in FMDV. A small number of selected sites are located in the heparan sulphate-binding pocket of the virus, suggesting a fitness advantage for cell entry of the virus. No positive selection was detected in the 3A dataset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Highest number of FMD affected villages and animal level incidence was in non-FMD-CP implemented Assam and Madhya Pradesh states, respectively and negligible incidence was in FMD-CP implemented Punjab state. • The crossbred and high productive animals was severely infected than local breeds and the sexwise and agewise comparison revealed higher incidence in females and adult animals. • In severe incidence scenario, milk loss ranged between USD 6.87–47.44, USD 18.42–125.88, USD 16.33–91.43, and USD 27.17–123.62; mortality loss ranged between USD 32.61–804.27, USD 30.76–577.7, USD 65.36–502.2,and USD 188.04–413.7; distress sale ranged between USD 3.22–188.63,USD 64.34–519.3, USD 214.47–341.8, and USD 209.11–450.3; opportunity cost of labour ranged between USD 5.49–54.29, USD 5.49–67.78; USD 7.95–31.37 and USD 9.83–72.38 in indigenous cattle, crossbred cattle, local and improved buffalo, respectively. • The projected farm-level economic loss due to FMD in cattle and buffaloes in India was USD 3159 million (INR 221,110 million), USD 270 million (INR 18,910 million) and USD 152 million (INR 10,610 million), respectively, with wide variation between the states. • The bi-annual vaccination need to be strictly implemented in the non-FMD-CP and also in the FMD-CP states to reduce the disease incidence. The study investigated the important epidemiological parameters and farm-level economic costs of FMD incidence in cattle and buffaloes during 2013−14 to 2015−16 in various states of India. Multistage random sampling procedure was adopted for the primary survey and data was collected through face-to-face personal interview from 18,609 cattle and buffalo rearing farm households from 123 districts across twelve states and one Union Territory. Besides epidemiological parameters, different farm-level direct and indirect loss associated with FMD was assessed at disaggregated level (states) by employing deterministic mathematical models. Highest number of affected villages and disease incidence was observed in non- FMD control programme (FMD-CP) implemented Madhya Pradesh and Assam states, respectively whereas negligible incidence was in FMD-CP implemented Punjab state. The disease incidence was high during 2013−14 and declined during 2014−15 and 2015−16, respectively implied severe incidence scenario (2013−14) succeeded by moderate (2014−15) and mild (2015−16) scenarios. The crossbred and high productive animals were severely affected than local breeds whereas on sexwise and agewise comparison revealed higher incidence in females and adult animals. During severe incidence scenario, milk loss/animal ranged from USD 6.87–47.44, 18.42–125.88, 16.33–91.43, and 27.17–123.62; mortality loss/animal ranged from USD 32.61–804.27, 30.76–577.7, 65.36–502.2, and 188.04–413.7; distress sale loss/animal ranged from USD 3.22–188.63, 64.34–519.3, 214.47–341.8, and 209.11–450.3; and opportunity cost of labour/animal from USD 5.49–54.29, 5.49–67.78; 7.95–31.37 and 9.83–72.38 in indigenous cattle, crossbred cattle, local and improved buffalo, respectively. The estimated draught power loss/animal varied from USD 39.46–142.94 with least being in Madhya Pradesh and highest in Assam states whereas the median treatment cost/animal was USD 9.18 and USD 27.07 in indigenous cattle and upgraded buffaloes, respectively. The total farm-level economic loss projected due to FMD in cattle and buffaloes in India was USD 3159 million (INR 221,110 million), USD 270 million (INR 18,910 million) and USD 152 million (INR 10,610 million), respectively during the severe, moderate and mild incidence scenarios at 2015−16 constant prices. The loss varied across the states, and in severe incidence scenario, the country might lose USD 3.2 billion/year and hence, the bi-annual vaccination schedule need to be strictly implemented in all the states. Besides timely vaccination coverage, managing unabated animal movement, educating and motivating the farmers to vaccinate their animals might reduce the incidence and consequential losses to various stakeholders in endemic states like India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The dairy industry plays a key role in the Indian economy. This study was conducted to understand the dairy inputs and outputs and to identify production constraints and biosecurity. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted in the Punjab state of India with 119 participants, including veterinarians, paraveterinarians, veterinary academics, dairy farmers and key informants. Farm inputs (e.g., feed and animal health services) and outputs (e.g., milk, animal sales, carcass and manure disposal) were mapped. Production constraints and biosecurity practices were identified and included the availability of green and dry fodder, provision of veterinary services by untrained practitioners, improper disposal of carcass/placenta/excreta, absence of health certification during sale or purchase of animals and absence of testing of village bulls. The government was a major provider of health and management services in the state, although a very high proportion of farmers relied on untrained or partially trained service providers for health advice and veterinary procedures. Improvement in biosecurity practices and adequate use of personal protective equipment is recommended to reduce the incidence of infectious diseases and minimize their impact. The dairy industry plays an important role in the economy and food security of India. A study of the dairy value chains was conducted in Punjab, India, to identify production constraints and biosecurity risks. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted during 2018–2019 with a total of 119 participants comprising veterinarians (41), paraveterinarians (15), veterinary academics (12), dairy farmers (46) and key informants (5). Input and output value chains were created, and potential risk nodes were identified that could facilitate the transmission of pathogens between animals, farms and villages. The majority of the participants were male (93%), middle-aged (68%) or worked in rural areas (75%). Most of the farmers self-cultivated their green fodder (82%), used the wheat straw from their own fields (60%) but purchased commercial feed (63%). Artificial insemination was used by 85% of farmers for cattle, but only 68% for buffaloes. Most of the farmers (76%) reported getting their animals vaccinated against foot-and-mouth disease and hemorrhagic septicemia. Animals were sold and purchased without any health certification and testing in most cases. Adoption of biosecurity measures by farmers and the use of personal protective equipment by veterinary personnel were very low. We recommend conducting epidemiological studies to further characterize the identified risk nodes, training of veterinary practitioners and farmers to ensure adequate biosecurity practices and the appropriate use of personal protective equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype O is the predominant cause of FMD outbreaks in several regions of the world including India. Five independent neutralizing antigenic sites have been identified on the capsid surface of FMD virus serotype O. The relative importance of these neutralizing sites in eliciting antibody responses in the polyclonal sera collected from un-infected vaccinated (both primo and multiply-vaccinated) and naturally infected cattle populations were determined through a combination of reverse genetics and serology. The known critical amino acid residues present on the five antigenic sites of FMD virus serotype O Indian vaccine strain O IND R2/1975 were mutated through site-directed mutagenesis. The mutant viruses were rescued in cell-culture and analyzed through virus-neutralization assays along with parent virus using the polyclonal sera collected from three groups of cattle. In the polyclonal sera from primo-vaccinated cattle, significantly higher level of antibodies were directed towards antigenic site 2. In contrast, in polyclonal sera from multiply vaccinated animals, both antigenic sites 1 and 2 were equally important. In case of naturally infected animals, antibody responses were elicited against all the five antigenic sites. Although a drop in neutralization titres was observed for all the mutants, in one instance, increase in titre was noticed for a site 3 mutant. The findings from this study extend our knowledge on the antibody immunodominace following FMDV vaccination and infection, and may improve our strategies for vaccine strain selection and rational vaccine design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]