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Background: The present study tries to provide a comprehensive estimate of gender differences in the years of life lost due to CVD across the major states of India during 2017–18. Methods: The information on the CVD related data were collected from medical certification of causes of death (MCCD reports, 2018). Apart from this, information from census of India (2001, 2011), SRS (2018) were also used to estimate YLL. To understand the variation in YLL due to CVD at the state level, nine sets of covariates were chosen: share of elderly population, percentage of urban population, literacy rate, health expenditure, social sector expenditure, labour force participation, HDI Score and co-existence of other NCDs such as diabetes, & obesity. The absolute number of YLL and YLL rates were calculated. Further, Pearson's correlation had been calculated and to understand the effect of explanatory variables on YLL due to CVD, multiple linear regression analysis had been applied. Results: Men have a higher burden of premature mortality in terms of Years of life lost (YLL) due to CVD than women in India, with pronounced differences at adult ages of 50–54 years and over. The age pattern of YLL rate suggests that the age group 85 + makes the highest contribution to the overall YLL rate due to CVD. YLL rate showed a J-shaped relationship with age, starting high at ages below 1 years, dropping to their lowest among children aged 1–4 years, and rising again to highest levels at 85 + years among both men and women. In all the states except Bihar men had higher estimated YLL due to CVD for all ages than women. Among men the YLL due to CVD was higher in Tamil Nadu followed by Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. On the other hand, the YLL due to CVD among men was lowest in Jharkhand followed by Assam. Similarly, among women the YLL due to CVD was highest in Tamil Nadu followed by Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. While, the YLL due to CVD among women was lowest in Jharkhand. Irrespective of gender, all factors except state health expenditure were positively linked with YLL due to CVD, i.e., as state health expenditure increases, the years of life lost (YLL) due to CVDs falls. Among all the covariates, the proportion of a state's elderly population emerges as the most significant predictor variable for YLL for CVDs (r = 0.42 for men and r = 0.50 for women). Conclusion: YLL due to cardiovascular disease varies among men and women across the states of India. The state-specific findings of gender differences in years of life lost due to CVD may be used to improve policies and programmes in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The present study tries to provide a comprehensive estimate of gender differences in the years of life lost due to CVD across the major states of India during 2017–18. Methods: The information on the CVD related data were collected from medical certification of causes of death (MCCD reports, 2018). Apart from this, information from census of India (2001, 2011), SRS (2018) were also used to estimate YLL. To understand the variation in YLL due to CVD at the state level, nine sets of covariates were chosen: share of elderly population, percentage of urban population, literacy rate, health expenditure, social sector expenditure, labour force participation, HDI Score and co-existence of other NCDs such as diabetes, & obesity. The absolute number of YLL and YLL rates were calculated. Further, Pearson's correlation had been calculated and to understand the effect of explanatory variables on YLL due to CVD, multiple linear regression analysis had been applied. Results: Men have a higher burden of premature mortality in terms of Years of life lost (YLL) due to CVD than women in India, with pronounced differences at adult ages of 50–54 years and over. The age pattern of YLL rate suggests that the age group 85 + makes the highest contribution to the overall YLL rate due to CVD. YLL rate showed a J-shaped relationship with age, starting high at ages below 1 years, dropping to their lowest among children aged 1–4 years, and rising again to highest levels at 85 + years among both men and women. In all the states except Bihar men had higher estimated YLL due to CVD for all ages than women. Among men the YLL due to CVD was higher in Tamil Nadu followed by Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. On the other hand, the YLL due to CVD among men was lowest in Jharkhand followed by Assam. Similarly, among women the YLL due to CVD was highest in Tamil Nadu followed by Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. While, the YLL due to CVD among women was lowest in Jharkhand. Irrespective of gender, all factors except state health expenditure were positively linked with YLL due to CVD, i.e., as state health expenditure increases, the years of life lost (YLL) due to CVDs falls. Among all the covariates, the proportion of a state's elderly population emerges as the most significant predictor variable for YLL for CVDs (r = 0.42 for men and r = 0.50 for women). Conclusion: YLL due to cardiovascular disease varies among men and women across the states of India. The state-specific findings of gender differences in years of life lost due to CVD may be used to improve policies and programmes in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social participation is considered one of the central components of successful and healthy aging. This study aimed to examine the moderating role of marital status and living arrangement with social participation and its association with life satisfaction of older Indian adults. Samples of 31,464 individuals aged ≥ 60 years were extracted from the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India, wave-1. Descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and multivariable linear regression were performed for the analysis. The moderation effect of marital status and living arrangements on the relationship between social participation and level of life satisfaction among Indian older adults were also analyzed. Overall, life satisfaction among older men was relatively higher than older women in this study. Older adults' involvement in social participation [β = 0.39, p < 0.05], being in marital union [β = 0.68, p < 0.001] and co-residing either with spouse [β = 1.73, p < 0.001] or with other family members [β = 2.18, p < 0.001] were positively related to their greater life satisfaction. Interaction of social participation with marital status showed that participating in social activities can boost life satisfaction only among married older people. Further, moderation effect of social participation with living arrangements showed that older adults who were not involved in social participation but living with a spouse or any other household members had higher life satisfaction, and again participation in social activities increased their life satisfaction to a greater level. The establishment of social clubs and advocating social policies oriented toward meaningful social connections are highly needed, especially for older Indians living alone or currently not in a marital union, which will help to enhance their overall life satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the sequential impact of components of maternal and child health care on the continuum of care in India using data from the Indian National Family Health Surveys conducted in 2005–06 and 2015–16. Continuum of care (CoC) for maternal and child health is defined in this paper as the sequential uptake of three key maternal services (antenatal care, institutional delivery and postnatal care for the mother). Women who received all three services were classified as full CoC recipients. Characteristics odd ratios for achieving CoC were estimated by mother's place of residence, household wealth status, mother's education, birth order and child full vaccination. Odds ratios were computed to understand the relative impact of each preceding service utilization on the odds of subsequent service uptake. At national level, 30.5% and 55.5% of women achieved full CoC in 2005–06 and 2015–16, respectively, and the overall progress of CoC over the 10-year period was 25.5 percentage points, with significant variation across states and socioeconomic groups. Full CoC improved from 7.5% to 32.4% among the poorest women, whereas among the richest women it improved from 70.5% to 75.1%. Similarly, among uneducated women full CoC improved from 11.7% to 35.9% as against 75.1% to 80.5% among educated mothers over the same period. Furthermore, greater CoC was observed among parity one women. The conditionality between various components of CoC indicated that at national level the odds of having an institutional delivery with antenatal care were 9 times higher in the earlier period as against 4.5 times higher in the more recent period. Furthermore, women who had institutional deliveries complied more with mother's postnatal care compared with women who did not have institutional deliveries. This again helps increase the likelihood of a child receiving full vaccination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A continuous rise of female life expectancy above that of males among older adults in India and China may give the impression that the relative gender gap in health in these countries is decreasing. However, given the systemic gender bias against older females in these countries across multiple dimensions of health, a fuller understanding of the gender gap in health calls for a multi-dimensional perspective. We estimate a multi-dimensional old-age threshold (MOAT) that specifies different old-age thresholds for female and male populations which accommodates multiple dimensions related to physical, intellectual and general health. We use the MOAT to evaluate the multi-dimensional gender gap in India and China by differencing the MOAT for females with that of males. Females in both countries have a lower MOAT than their male counterparts, indicating an earlier advent of 'old age' for females. The multi-dimensional estimates of the gender gap are also higher than the estimates based on only one dimension of health. A considerable level of variation is also observed in the gender gap across provinces. The study illustrates the need to understand the gender gap in health in India and China from a multi-dimensional perspective and provides an innovative way to quantify such a gap. Province-specific as well as health dimension-specific interventions are vital in reducing the gender gap among older adults in these countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the demographic changes in India. Topics discussed include the country's population rate following the declaration of independence in 1947, the infant mortality rate (IMR), and the maternal and children health services in the country. Information regarding the country's initiative to adopt family planning program in 1952, the fertility rate, and the improvements in life expectancy, are also included.

This article presents the limitations of current climate-related disaster risk reduction policies that do not incorporate the underlying conditions in urban areas like Mumbai. It argues that climate risks exist at the intersection of changing nature of extreme events due to changes in climate (physical risk); presence of people, infrastructure, and resources in locations where these events are occurring (exposure); and the inability of exposed communities to reduce these losses or cope with them (vulnerability) due to simultaneous socioeconomic and political stresses. Hence, the article concludes that it is critical to apply a broader approach to understand the workings of underlying processes that affect all components and contribute to the production of risk and vulnerability in society. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background Abuse against the elderly is recognized as an important challenge to elderly health, but its determinants are not yet well understood. We present findings from a new dataset which covers a representative sample of the population aged 60 years and above from seven Indian states across India - all of which have a higher proportion aged 60 plus compared to the national average. Earlier studies suggest that schooling levels can be relevant in determining the level of abuse against seniors. This study focuses on the role of education on the prevalence of elderly abuse in India. Methods We conduct an analysis of cross sectional primary data that contains information on elderly abuse. The households in the sample were randomly selected from the seven demographically oldest states in India. These states are Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. A total of 9852 elderly from 8329 households were interviewed. The statistical analysis is based on logistic regression to understand the independent relation of education with abuse against the elderly. Results Our findings reveal that 11% of 60+ year olds have experienced at least one type of elderly abuse (Physical 5.3%, Verbal 10.2%, Economic 5.4%, Disrespect 6%, Neglect 5.2%). The most common perpetrator is the son, who is reported to be responsible for the abuse among 41% of male victims and 43% of female victims. The formal education among elderly beyond a certain level (8 years) has a strong relation with reduced violence against elderly. Conclusions Our findings suggest that level of schooling among elderly is strongly negatively related to abuse against them. More members in the household reduce the chance of abuse while having a greater number of children increases the chance of abuse (neglect and verbal abuse). We find that education even after controlling for wealth and other relevant variables is the factor that most consistently lowers elderly abuse. However, the relation of education to abuse is limited to those with more than 8 years of schooling. This suggest that the ongoing educational expansion beyond the basic schooling years in India may lead to a decline in the incidence of elderly abuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To quantify the economic burden of maternal health care services on Indian households and examine the levels of expenditure incurred in public and private health care institutions at the national, state and community levels. Cross-sectional population data from the 2004 National Sample Survey Organisation were used, which considered 9,643 households for the analysis where at least one woman received maternal health care services during the year preceding the survey. Multilevel linear regression techniques were used to estimate the effect of household, cluster and state characteristics on the proportion of maternal health care expenditures over total household expenditures. Over 80 % of households reported paying for maternal health care services, with those using private care facilities paying almost 4 times more than those using public facilities. Multilevel analyses show evidence of high burden of maternal health care expenditures, which varied significantly across states according to the level of health care utilisation, and with considerable heterogeneity at the household and community levels. Maternal health care services in India are offered free at the point of delivery, yet many families face significant out-of-pocket expenditures. The recent governmental policy interventions to encourage institutional births by providing nominal financial assistance is a welcome step but this might not help to compensate mothers for other indirect expenditures, especially those living in rural areas and poorer communities who are increasingly seeking care in private facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on the association between experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) and contraceptive use discontinuation in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) is limited. This study aims to fill this important gap using microdata collected from women aged 15–49 in the 2015–2016 National Family Health Survey (NFHS). Analyses used multivariable multinomial logistic regressions stratified by long‐acting reversible contraceptive methods (LARC)/non‐LARC and condom/pill to examine the association between experience of IPV and contraceptive use discontinuation while still in need (DWSIN). Experience of physical violence was associated with DWSIN among LARC/IUD users (RRR: 3.73, 95 percent CI [1.55–8.95]) Among condom users, DWSIN was higher among women who experienced emotional violence compared with women who did not experience any violence (RRR: 4.16, 95 percent CI [1.59–10.90]). Although we did not find an association between IPV and overall contraceptive use discontinuation, we did find compelling evidence of an association between IPV and IUD and condom use discontinuation in India. There is a need to understand women's experience of IPV as a part of a broader strategy to provide high‐quality family planning services to all women while considering individual circumstances and reproductive aspirations to support the uninterrupted use of contraception in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses emerging demographic patterns and its opportunities and challenges for India. It investigates the specificities in the demographic transition in terms of various demographic parameters and the lack of homogeneity in the transition across states in the country. It presents some opportunities that can arise from having demographic changes, particularly the demographic dividend and interstate migration to overcome labor shortage in some parts. At the same time, there are serious challenges in the form of enhancing human capital development, addressing the issue of skewed sex ratio, and the possible rise in social and political unrest and conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The parish records of Syrian Catholics and Latin Catholics in twentieth-century Kerala, India, can be used to assess the seasonal fluctuations and interdependence of such vital events as births, deaths, and marriages in the short run. That the effect of seasonality has been more pronounced among the Syrian Catholic community than among the Latin Catholic community is due largely to socioeconomic, cultural, religious, and, more important, occupational differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Recent National Family Health Survey results portray striking improvements in most population and health indicators, including fertility, family planning, maternal and child health, gender treatment, household environments, and health insurance coverage of the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY), with all India resonance. However, the prevalence of any anaemia (< 11 g/dl) among children under age five has exhibited a reversed trajectory in recent years. Therefore, the present study explores key drivers of the reversal of the trend in the prevalence of childhood anaemia between 2015 and2021. Methods: Data of four rounds of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) were used to show the overall trend of anaemia among children. However, for the analysis of key drivers of the reversal trend of childhood anaemia, only the recent two rounds (NFHS-4 & NFHS-5) were used. Descriptive, bivariate multivariable analysis and Fairlie decomposition model were used to explore the drivers of the reversal of the trend in childhood anaemia. Results: During the past two decades, India has seen a decline in the prevalence of childhood anaemia (NFHS-2 to NFHS-4). However, a reversal of trend was observed recently. The prevalence of anaemia among children aged 6–59 months increased from 59 percent in NFHS-4 to 67 percent in NFHS-5. In addition, the prevalence of mild anaemia increased from 23.3 percent in NFHS-2 to 28.7 percent in NFHS-5. However, the prevalence of moderate and severe anaemia declined considerably from NFHS-2 (40 percent and 4.1 percent) to NFHS-4 (28.7 percent and 1.6 percent), but showed an increase in the prevalence in NFHS-5 (36.3 percent and 2.2 percent). Among others, mothers' educational attainment, anaemia status and socio-economic status emerge as the key drivers of the change in the prevalence of childhood anaemia. Conclusion: These findings may have vital implications for the ongoing Anaemia Mukt Bharat Programme, one of the government's dream projects in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Short interpregnancy interval (IPI) is a well-known risk factor for preterm births and low birth weights. However, research on the association between interpregnancy interval (IPI) and health outcomes in children under age 5 is limited in India. We examined the associations between IPI and five child health outcomes in India. Methods: We used nationally representative cross-sectional data from three rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS) conducted in India during 2005-06, 2015-16 and 2019-21 to examine the associations between IPI [categorized as < 12 months, 12–17 months, 18–23 months (ref), 24–35 months, and 36–59 months] and five child health outcomes – neonatal mortality, postneonatal mortality, diarrhea and/or acute respiratory infections (ARI), stunting, and underweight, for the total sample and, secondarily, using sex-stratified analyses. We used multivariable and mother fixed-effects binary logistic regressions to examine the associations. Results: 3% and 2% of infants died during the neonatal and postneonatal period, respectively. Thirteen, 40, and 37% of children had diarrhea and/or ARI, were stunted, and were underweight, respectively. IPI < 12 months was associated with higher odds of diarrhea and/or ARI (OR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.05–1.18), stunting (OR: 1.13; 95% CI: 1.08–1.18) and underweight (OR: 1.06; 95% CI: 1.01–1.11). Mother fixed-effects adjustments confirmed these associations and also found that births with IPI of 12–17 months and 36–59 months had higher odds of stunting, and IPI of 12–17 months was also associated with higher odds of underweight. Discussion: Our findings indicate that IPIs shorter than 12 months are a risk factor for diarrhea and/or ARI, and IPIs shorter than 12 months and 12–17 months are risk factors for stunting and underweight among children under 5 in India. Mother fixed-effects models allowed us to adjust our estimates for unobserved heterogeneity; this has rarely been done before. Increases in birth spacing may improve child health outcomes in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The states and districts are the primary focal points for policy formulation and programme intervention in India. The within‐districts variation of key health indicators is not well understood and consequently underemphasised. This study aims to partition geographic variation in low birthweight (LBW) and small birth size (SBS) in India and geovisualize the distribution of small area estimates. Applying a four‐level logistic regression model to the latest round of the National Family Health Survey (2015–2016) covering 640 districts within 36 states and union territories of India, the variance partitioning coefficient and precision‐weighted prevalence of LBW (<2.5 kg) and SBS (mother's self‐report) were estimated. For each outcome, the spatial distribution by districts of mean prevalence and small area variation (as measured by standard deviation) and the correlation between them were computed. Of the total valid sample, 17.6% (out of 193,345 children) had LBW and 12.4% (out of 253,213 children) had SBS. The small areas contributed the highest share of total geographic variance in LBW (52%) and SBS (78%). The variance of LBW attributed to small areas was unevenly distributed across the regions of India. While a strong correlation between district‐wide percent and within‐district standard deviation was identified in both LBW (r = 0.88) and SBS (r = 0.87), they were not necessarily concentrated in the aspirational districts. We find the necessity of precise policy attention specifically to the small areas in the districts of India with a high prevalence of LBW and SBS in programme formulation and intervention that may be beneficial to improve childbirth outcomes. Key messages: The small areas contribute the highest share of the total geographic variance of low birth weight (LBW) and small birth size (SBS) in India.A high burden of LBW is found mostly in the central‐western part of India and Odisha. The prevalence of SBS is high across the district of northern‐western regions and the north‐eastern regions of India.The mean prevalence and standard deviation are strongly correlated in the case of both LBW (r = 0.88) and SBS (r = 0.87) in India. It indicates that the districts which have a higher prevalence of LBW and SBS also have a higher between small area disparity within the districts.We find a similar pattern of distribution in LBW and SBS between the policy‐focused aspirational districts and other districts of India.Findings indicate reprioritizing the policy intervention, focusing on the small areas of India for better childbirth outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While existing indices of gender equality measure the role of women's status and position, they inadequately contextualize the broader construct of patriarchy, a social system that underlies many gender inequitable practices. An index capturing patriarchy may afford increased understanding of this social system, and may serve to complement other gender equality indices. This paper involves the development and testing of a novel composite measure, the India Patriarchy Index, to quantify the social and ideological construct of patriarchy using empirical data on family structure and gender roles. Using data from India's National Family Health Survey, we develop an India Patriarchy Index to measure gendered social positioning in families based on sex by age, patrilocality, sex ratio imbalance among offspring, and gendered economic roles. Psychometric testing demonstrates good internal reliability and construct validity of this index, with validity indicated by its association with three gender equality indices used in India. Spatial and temporal analyses further indicate much state-level variation in India Patriarchy Index scores as well as slow change on this indicator over time, based on time trend analyses from 1992–93 to 2015–16. Results demonstrate the utility of the India Patriarchy Index to measure and track gender equality progress in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child undernutrition remains high in India with far-reaching consequences for child health and development. Anthropometry reflects undernutrition. We examined the state-level trends in underweight, stunting, and wasting prevalence and inequality by living standards using four rounds of the National Family Health Surveys in 26 states in India, conducted in 1992–1993, 1998–1999, 2005–2006, and 2015–2016. The average annual reduction (AAR) for underweight ranged from 0.04 percentage points (pp) (95% CI − 0.12, 0.20) in Haryana to 1.05 pp (95% CI 0.88, 1.22) in West Bengal for underweight; 0.35 pp (95% CI 0.11, 0.59) in Manipur to 1.47 (95% CI 1.19, 1.75) in Himachal Pradesh for stunting; and − 0.65 pp (95% CI − 0.77, − 0.52) in Haryana to 0.36 pp (95% CI 0.22, 0.51) in Bihar & Jharkhand for wasting. We find that change in the pp difference between children with the poorest and richest household living standards varied by states: statistically significant decline (increase) was observed in 5 (3) states for underweight, 5 (4) states for stunting, and 2 (1) states for wasting. Prevalence of poor anthropometric outcomes as well as disparities by states and living standards remain a problem in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research on sex ratio at birth (SRB) in India has largely relied on macro‐analysis of census data that do not contain the breadth of factors needed to explain patterns in SRB. Additionally, no previous research has examined the differentiation of factors associated with SRB across birth orders, a key determinant in societies affected by son preference. This study aims to fill these gaps using micro‐data related to 553,461 births occurring between 2005 and 2016 collected as part of the 2015–2016 National Family Health Survey. Analyses used multivariable logistic regressions stratified by birth order to examine associations with SRB at the national level. The SRB at birth order 1 was outside the biological normal limit, and generally increased with birth order. First births in households with wealth in the middle and richest quintiles, with mothers who desired a higher ideal number of sons than daughters, and in lower fertility communities had a higher probability of being male. Most SRB correlates were visible at birth orders 3 or higher. Programs and policies designed to address India's male‐skewed SRB must consider the diverse factors that influence SRB, particularly for higher order births. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In West Bengal, India, at present, more than 26 million people are exposed to arsenic through drinking water. Among them, only 15–20% manifest arsenic-induced noncancerous, precancerous, and cancerous skin lesions, indicating that genetic variants play important role in arsenic susceptibility. Chronic arsenic exposure has been associated with impairment of immune systems in the exposed individuals. Because cytokines are important immune mediators, alteration in expression of these gene products may lead to arsenic-specific disease manifestations. The aim of the present work was to investigate the association between the TNF-α−308G>A (rs1800629) and IL10 −3575T>A (rs1800890) polymorphisms and arsenic-induced dermatological and nondermatological health outcomes. A case-control study was conducted in West Bengal, India, involving 207 cases with arsenic-induced skin lesions and 190 controls without skin lesions having similar arsenic exposure. The polymorphisms were determined using conventional PCR-sequencing method. ELISA was done to determine the serum levels of the two cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 10 (IL10). Associations between the polymorphisms studied and nondermatological health effects in the study subjects were determined from our epidemiological survey data. Individuals with GA/AA (−308 TNF-α) and TA/AA (−3575 IL10) genotypes were at higher risk of developing arsenic-induced skin lesions, ocular, and respiratory diseases. Also the −308 TNF A allele corresponded to a higher production of TNF-α, and −3575 IL10 A allele corresponded to a lower production of IL10. Thus, the polymorphisms studied impart significant risk toward development of arsenic-induced dermatological and nondermatological health effects in the chronically exposed population of West Bengal, India. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: Previous research has demonstrated health benefits of marriage and the potential for worse outcomes during widowhood in some populations. However, few studies have assessed the relevance of widowhood and widowhood duration to a variety of health-related outcomes and chronic diseases among older adults in India, and even fewer have examined these relationships stratified by gender.Methods: Using a cross-sectional representative sample of 9,615 adults aged 60 years or older from 7 states in diverse regions of India, we examine the relationship between widowhood and self-rated health, psychological distress, cognitive ability, and four chronic diseases before and after adjusting for demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, living with children, and rural-urban location for men and women, separately. We then assess these associations when widowhood accounts for duration.Results: Being widowed as opposed to married was associated with worse health outcomes for women after adjusting for other explanatory factors. Widowhood in general was not associated with any outcomes for men except for cognitive ability, though men who were widowed within 0-4 years were at greater risk for diabetes compared to married men. Moreover, recently widowed women and women who were widowed long-term were more likely to experience psychological distress, worse self-rated health, and hypertension, even after adjusting for other explanatory variables, whereas women widowed 5-9 years were not, compared to married women.Conclusions: Gender, the duration of widowhood, and type of outcome are each relevant pieces of information when assessing the potential for widowhood to negatively impact health. Future research should explore how the mechanisms linking widowhood to health vary over the course of widowhood. Incorporating information about marital relationships into the design of intervention programs may help better target potential beneficiaries among older adults in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]