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Objective: Post-partum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading direct cause of maternal mortality in India. Uterine balloon tamponade (UBT) is recommended for atonic PPH cases not responding to uterotonics. This study assessed cost-effectiveness of three UBT devices used in Indian public health settings., Methods: A decision tree model was built to assess cost-effectiveness of Bakri-UBT and low-cost ESM-UBT alternatives as compared to the recommended standard of care i.e. condom-UBT intervention. A hypothetical annual cohort of women eligible for UBT intervention after experiencing atonic PPH in Indian public health facilities were evaluated for associated costs and outcomes over life-time horizon using a disaggregated societal perspective. Costs by undertaking primary costing and clinical parameters from published literature were used. Incremental cost per Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) averted, number of surgeries and maternal deaths with the interventions were estimated. An India specific willingness to pay threshold of INR 24,211 (USD 375) was used to evaluate cost-effectiveness. Detailed sensitivity analysis and expected value of information analysis was undertaken., Results: ESM-UBT at base-case Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) of INR -2,412 (USD 37) per DALY averted is a cost-saving intervention i.e. is less expensive and more effective as compared to condom-UBT. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis however shows an error probability of 0.36, indicating a degree of uncertainty around model results. Bakri-UBT at an ICER value of INR -126,219 (USD -1,957) per DALY averted incurs higher incremental societal costs and is less effective as compared to condom-UBT. Hence, Bakri-UBT is not cost-effective., Conclusion: For atonic PPH management in India, condom-UBT offers better value as compared to Bakri-UBT. Given the limited clinical effectiveness evidence and uncertainty in sensitivity analysis, cost-saving result for ESM-UBT must be considered with caution. Future research may focus on generating high quality comparative clinical evidence for UBT devices to facilitate policy decision making., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: In 2008, the Indian government introduced financial assistance to encourage health facility deliveries. Facility births have increased, but maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality have not decreased raising questions about the quality of care provided in facilities and access to a quality referral system. We evaluated the potential role of inter-institutional transfers of women admitted for labor and delivery on adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes in an ongoing prospective, population-based Maternal and Newborn Health Registry in Central India., Methods: Pregnant women from 20 rural Primary Health Centers near Nagpur, Maharashtra were followed throughout pregnancy and to day 42 post-partum. Inter- institutional referral was defined as transfer of a woman from a first or second level facility where she was admitted for labor and delivery to facility providing higher level of care, after admission to the day of delivery. Maternal mortality, stillbirth, early and late neonatal mortality were compared in mothers who were and were not referred. Factors associated with inter-institutional referral were analyzed using multivariable models with generalized estimating equations, adjusted for clustering at the level of the Primary Health Center., Results: Between June 2009 and June 2013, 3236 (9.4%) of 34,319 women had inter-institutional referral. Factors associated with referrals were maternal age (adjusted Relative Risk or aRR 1.1; 1.0-1.2); moderate or severe anemia (aRR 1.2; 1.2-1.4), gestational age <37 weeks (aRR 1.16; 1.05-1.27), multiple gestation (aRR 1.6; 1.2-2.1), absent fetal heart rate (aRR 1.7; 1.3-2.2), primigravida (aRR 1.4; 1.3, 1.6), primigravida with any pregnancy related maternal condition such as obstructed or prolonged labor; major antepartum or post-partum hemorrhage, hypertension or preeclampsia and breech, transverse or oblique lie (aRR 4.7; 3.8, 5.8), multigravida with any pregnancy related conditions (aRR 4.2; 3.4-5.2). Stillbirths, early neonatal,late neonatal and early infant deaths occurred in 7.3% referred mothers vs. 3.7% of not referred., Conclusions: Almost 10% of the women had an inter-institutional referral and still birth or neonatal deaths were doubled in referred women. Conditions associated with referral were often known before onset of labor and delivery. Improvements in maternal and neonatal outcomes will likely require pregnant women with conditions associated with referral to be directly admitted at facilities equipped to care for complicated pregnancies and at risk neonates, as well as prompt detection and transfer those who develop "at risk" conditions during labor and delivery., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01073475 .

Background: Obstetric hemorrhage (OH), which includes hemorrhage from multiple etiologies during pregnancy, childbirth, or postpartum, is the leading cause of maternal mortality and accounts for one-quarter of global maternal deaths. The Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (NASG) is a first-aid device for obstetric hemorrhage that can be applied for post-partum/post miscarriage and for ectopic pregnancies to buy time for a woman to reach a health care facility for definitive treatment. Despite successful field trials, and endorsement by safe motherhood organizations and the World Health Organization (WHO), scale-up has been slow in some countries. This qualitative study explores contextual factors affecting uptake., Methods: From March 2013 to April 2013, we conducted 13 key informant interviews across four countries with a large burden of maternal mortality that had achieved varying success in scaling up the NASG: Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe. These key informants were health providers or program specialists working with the NASG. We applied a health policy analysis framework to organize the results. The framework has five domains: attributes of the intervention, attributes of the implementers, delivery strategy, attributes of the adopting community, the socio-political context, and the research context., Results: The interviews from our study found that relevant facilitators for scale-up are the simplicity of the device, local and international champions, well-developed training sessions, recommendations by WHO and the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and dissemination of NASG clinical trial results. Barriers to scaling up the NASG included limited health infrastructure, relatively high upfront cost of the NASG, initial resistance by providers and policy makers, lack of in-country champions or policy makers advocating for NASG implementation, inadequate return and exchange programs, and lack of political will., Conclusions: There was a continuum of uptake ranging in both speed and scale. Ethiopia while not the first country to use the NASG has the most rapid scale-up, followed by Nigeria, then India, and finally Zimbabwe. Increasing the coverage of the NASG will require collaboration with local NASG champions, greater NASG awareness among clinicians and policymakers, as well as stronger political will and advocacy.

To identify and analyse the risk factors associated with postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) and assess their impact on the maternal morbidity, a prospective observational study was carried out over a period of one year in a tertiary level referral institute in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. All the cases of PPH were identified and studied. Data analyses were done using Chi-square test. Out of 210 cases of maternal morbidity, 79 (37.6%) were found to have PPH as the causative factor. Uterine atonicity was found to be the main cause leading to 45 cases (56.9%) of PPH. With respect to the mode of delivery severe PPH was found in 34.3% of vaginally and 60% of operatively delivered patients which had statistical significance. More number of severe PPH cases, 17/31 (54.8%), had delivered outside the medical college. Here comes the role of 24-hour quality emergency obstetric care (EMOC), active management of 3rd stage of labour and early referral to the higher centre. The case fatality rate of PPH during the study period was 7.5%. This finding is quite close to the observation made in a North Indian tertiary hospital based study. In order to reduce maternal morbidity and thereby indirectly maternal mortality and to improve the overall maternal health, prevention and control of PPH can play a significant role. An integrated approach at all levels of healthcare delivery system, active management of labour and efficient emergency obstetric care will help in controlling the PPH.

Objective: To compare the cost-effectiveness of community-based distribution of misoprostol for prevention with misoprostol for treatment of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH)., Methods: A Monte Carlo simulation depicted mortality and anemia-related morbidity attributable to PPH among 3 scenarios of 10,000 women delivering at home in rural India: (1) standard management; (2) standard management plus 800microg of sublingual misoprostol for PPH treatment; and (3) standard management plus 600microg of prophylactic oral misoprostol. The model included costs of drugs, birth attendant training, and transport for women who did not respond to misoprostol., Results: Misoprostol lowered mortality by 70% and 81% in scenarios 2 and 3, respectively. Scenarios 2 and 3 raise costs by 6% and 35%, respectively. Incremental cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) saved is estimated at $6 and $170, respectively., Conclusion: Both interventions were more effective at decreasing mortality and anemia than standard management. The most efficient scale-up plan would focus initially on increasing coverage with the treatment strategy ($6 per DALY).

Anaemia is a major health problem among woman of reproductive age group, particularly in developing countries. We undertook this study to determine the maternal and perinatal outcome in patients with severe anaemia in pregnancy, with a haemoglobin concentration of < 7 g/dl. The in-hospital data were analysed for 12 months between January 2007 and December 2007 and 2.15% (n = 96) of women were found to have severe anaemia. Out of these, 18.75% had pre-term premature rupture of membranes and 5.12% of all deliveries were pre-term. Hypertensive diseases of pregnancy were seen in 17.7%; abruption in 3.12% and 9.37% had congestive cardiac failure. Postpartum haemorrhage was seen in 25.5% of the patients and 8.33% had puerperal pyrexia. Fetal distress was seen in 26% of and 33.33% had small for gestational age neonates; there were 16.66% stillbirths and 4.16% neonatal deaths. Of the 96 severely anaemic women, six died after admission. Our study shows that efforts must be taken towards safe motherhood and spreading awareness about the various consequences of anaemia, which is usually preventable with early correction.

Background: Reduction in maternal and child mortality has been a top priority in India, especially in light of the commitment on the part of the national government to the reach the Millennium Development Goals. Despite massive program efforts and availability of technology needed to avert maternal deaths, the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in India continues to be high. Population-based estimates of MMR are lacking, and reliable evidence of role of socioeconomic determinants and program-related factors that mediate medical causes is not available. The present study was conducted to develop population-based estimates of MMR, and to evaluate the primary causes of maternal deaths and factors associated with excess risk of maternal mortality., Methods: The study was conducted in the state of Rajasthan in India, covering 25,926 households in 411 villages. It has two major components: a community-based household survey and a case-control study with cases and controls sampled from the same population. A total of 32 maternal deaths and 6,165 live births were identified. The group of women who died during pregnancy or delivery (cases) is compared with a group of women who gave birth and survived (controls)., Results: MMR was estimated to be 519 (95% confidence interval [CI], 477-561). Hemorrhage was the chief cause (31%) of maternal deaths; the other causes were obstructed labor, severe anemia, puerperal sepsis, and abortion. Young age at child birth (odds ratio [OR], 2.6; 95% CI, 1.9-3.2) and poverty (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.6-3.4) were independently associated with increased risk of maternal death. Presence of complications during antenatal period was an important predictor of maternal death (OR, 7.8; 95% CI, 6.8-8.8). Childbirth at home (OR, 4.4; 95% CI, 3.3-5.5) was associated with increased risk of maternal death. The study provides clear evidence for renewed program efforts and strategies for reducing complications and maternal deaths., (Copyright 2010 Jacobs Institute of Women)

Background: In places with poor vital registration, measurement of maternal mortality and monitoring the impact of interventions on maternal mortality is difficult and seldom undertaken. Mortality ratios are often estimated and policy decisions made without robust evidence. This paper presents a prospective key informant system to measure maternal mortality and the initial findings from the system., Methods: In a population of 228 186, key informants identified all births and deaths to women of reproductive age, prospectively, over a period of 110 weeks. After birth verification, interviewers visited households six to eight weeks after delivery to collect information on the ante-partum, intra-partum and post-partum periods, as well as birth outcomes. For all deaths to women of reproductive age they ascertained whether they could be classified as maternal, pregnancy related or late maternal and if so, verbal autopsies were conducted., Results: 13 602 births were identified, with a crude birth rate of 28.2 per 1000 population (C.I. 27.7-28.6) and a maternal mortality ratio of 722 per 100 000 live births (C.I. 591-882) recorded. Maternal deaths comprised 29% of all deaths to women aged 15-49. Approximately a quarter of maternal deaths occurred ante-partum, a half intra-partum and a quarter post-partum. Haemorrhage was the commonest cause of all maternal deaths (25%), but causation varied between the ante-partum, intra-partum and post-partum periods. The cost of operating the surveillance system was US$386 a month, or US$0.02 per capita per year., Conclusion: This low cost key informant surveillance system produced high, but plausible birth and death rates in this remote population in India. This method could be used to monitor trends in maternal mortality and to test the impact of interventions in large populations with poor vital registration and thus assist policy makers in making evidence-based decisions.

Aim: To assess risk factors, mortality and "near-miss" morbidity in early PPH., Setting and Design: Retrospective analysis of 178 women with early PPH (within 24 h of delivery) over 4 consecutive years in a tertiary care hospital in North India., Materials and Methods: All case sheets of patients identified by labor record registers as having early PPH were reviewed by the same person to identify the actual impact of condition. The data was analyzed by chi-square analysis., Result: Early PPH (loss of blood that caused significant alteration in maternal condition or blood loss 500 in vaginal deliveries or> 1000 cc in cesarean section) was recorded in 178; 90 delivered in hospital (Group-A) and 88 referred after delivery (Group-B) from various peripheral centers, i.e., maternity hospitals, nursing homes, district and community health centers. The maternal mortality ratio during this period was 1049/100,000 (139 deaths/13248 live births; direct maternal deaths = 94). Early PPH accounted for 11/94 direct maternal deaths (11.7%). Of these 11 deaths, 3 were in group A and 8 in group B. "Near-miss" morbidity was higher than mortality (Total 19/178; 5/90 in Group-A and 14/88 in Group-B). Delayed referral and lack of active 3rd stage management in Group-B were responsible for most of the adverse events., Conclusion: Both "near-miss" morbidity and mortality in early PPH reflect the level of obstetric care in the developing world. These need to be reduced by strengthening peripheral delivery facilities, active 3rd stage management and early referral.

Objectives: To estimate the incidence of maternal morbidity during labour and the puerperium in rural homes, the association with perinatal outcome and the proportion of women needing medical attention., Design: Prospective observational study nested in a neonatal care trial., Setting: Thirty-nine villages in the Gadchiroli district, Maharashtra, India., Sample: Seven hundred and seventy-two women recruited over a one year period (1995-1996) and followed up from the seventh month in pregnancy to 28 days postpartum (up to 10 visits in total)., Methods: Observations at home by trained village health workers, validated by a physician. Diagnosis of morbidities by computer program., Main Outcomes: Direct obstetric complications during labour and the puerperium, breast problems, psychiatric problems and need for medical attention., Results: The incidence of maternal morbidity was 52.6%, 17.7% during labour and 42.9% during puerperium. The most common intrapartum morbidities were prolonged labour (10.1%), prolonged rupture of membranes (5.7%), abnormal presentation (4.0%) and primary postpartum haemorrhage (3.2%). The postpartum morbidities included breast problems (18.4%), secondary postpartum haemorrhage (15.2%), puerperal genital infections (10.2%) and insomnia (7.4%). Abnormal presentation and some puerperal complications (infection, fits, psychosis and breast problems) were significantly associated with adverse perinatal outcomes, but prolonged labour was not. A third of the mothers were in need of medical attention: 15.3% required emergency obstetric care and 24.0% required non-emergency medical attention., Conclusions: Nearly 15% of women who deliver in rural homes potentially need emergency obstetric care. Frequent (43%) postpartum morbidity, and its association with adverse perinatal outcome, suggests the need for home-based postpartum care in developing countries for both mother and baby.

Obstetric haemorrhage continues to be a major cause of maternal mortality. Our analysis of records of over a period of 20 years from April 1982 to March 2002 reveals that it was a contributory cause of maternal mortality in 19.9% of cases. The majority of deaths, (65%) had occurred within 24 hours of admission and in 47.5% of cases there was severe anaemia on admission; 17.5% had died due to an atonic PPH, which was the largest category, followed by ruptured uterus (15%), abruptio placenta (15%) and retained placenta (12.5%). Deaths due to obstetric haemorrhage because of a ruptured uterus, retained placenta and abortion have decreased from 22.22% between 1982 and 1987 to zero in the last 5 years and an increase was seen in deaths due to haemorrhage because of gestational trophoblastic neoplasia and ectopic pregnancy, from 1.69% to 4.87%, unclassified haemorrhage 1.96% to 7.31% and placenta praevia from zero between 1982 and 1987 to 4.87% between 1997 and 2002.