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Introduction: Ancient water harvesting systems, such as those from the Indus Valley Civilization (~3500 BCE), have been vital for irrigation and climate resilience, especially in arid regions. One such prominent system in South Asia, called tank irrigation, initially thrived through community management but declined post-independence due to colonial policies and neglect in Sri Lanka and India. This study evaluates current policy frameworks and rehabilitation programs to enhance the resilience of these systems in India, develop strategies for their protection and adaptation to climate change, and integrate global lessons for sustainable development. Methods: A systematic meta-analysis of grey literature was conducted to aggregate data on policy constraints. Policy analysis involved detailed investigations of relevant documents, regulations, and comparative analyses of frameworks at regional and national levels. Pilot projects on tank rehabilitation were assessed through reported case studies and field surveys to gauge impact. Thematic analysis was used to explore the global potential of these systems in climate resilience and overall environmental sustainability. Results: The analysis showed that pilot projects for tank rehabilitation had limited success in achieving sustainability under current climate conditions. Tank irrigation systems are crucial for adapting to extreme weather, including floods, droughts, and heat waves, replenishing groundwater, reducing soil erosion, and ensuring reliable water supplies. Traditional water harvesting technologies support 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including clean water access, hunger reduction, gender equality, and climate action. Integrating AI and machine learning in water management benefits disaster response, while eco-tourism aids system maintenance and cultural awareness. Discussion: The study underscores the need for policy reforms to enhance tank rehabilitation and institutional arrangements. It calls for increased beneficiary participation and constitutional recognition of current practices. Strategic, national-scale assessments and resilience targets are recommended to improve the effectiveness of such water harvesting systems in mitigating natural hazards and enhancing environmental services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rain water harvesting is the process of collection and storage of rain for various purposes. Rainwater harvesting continues to be the main source of water supply for potable and non-potable uses. Located in a hot and semi-arid region with water scarcity, the National Innovation Foundation - India (NIF) identified a need to conserve water for office use. Building upon the expertise and experience of Lok Mitra Trust in this field, NIF got built traditional, but unique type of rain water harvesting tanks also known as "Matka tank" at its headquarters in Gandhinagar, Gujarat. The unique features of the tank are its hemispherical shaped upper dome and saucer shaped bottom surface, which is being reported for the first time. The Matka tank for rain water harvesting may be considered as a sustainable technique to mitigate the water scarcity in the context of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In semi‐arid regions as in India, where agriculture relies on groundwater abstraction, increase of water resources availability through managed aquifer recharge (MAR) or rainwater harvesting (RWH) is often perceived as a major solution. Studies on these structures' efficiency exists but despite the interest, limited information is available on the temporal variation of their replenishment. In a monsoon driven climate, the inter‐annual variations are crucial to assess the potential of water storage and multi‐year management especially for these structures. Here, we aim at developing a methodology to reconstruct water storage of RWH tanks to further improve our understanding on long term efficiency and multi‐years drought management. To tackle this issue, long‐term monitoring of a RWH tank located in Telangana in Southern India is achieved by a combination of field monitoring over 2 years (tanks surface and water levels) and a daily water balance compared to LANDSAT measurements of the tank area. The procedure allows reconstructing the tank filling dynamic over a 14‐years period at a daily time step and show the extreme variability of the tank filling level. During this period, the yearly maximum tank volume ranges from 8650 to ~200 000 m3. On the 14‐years period, the tank reach its maximum capacity only once and, for 1/3 of the time, yearly maximum replenishment is below 15% of its capacity. The surface water availability remains limited in time since the tank dries‐up annually, except for 2 years. However, water percolation to the aquifer is slightly enhanced for some years. During this monitoring period, very few extreme raining events (6) contribute for more than 50% of the collected volume. This observation highlights (1) the dependency of the structure to extreme storm events, (2) the limited capacity for a multi‐year's management and (3) the farmers vulnerability to successive droughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study was conducted involving (i) continuous trench (CT), (ii) CT with rainwater harvesting tank (RWHT) and basin irrigation (BI), and (iii) CT with RWHT and drip irrigation (DRI) to identify a suitable rainwater management strategy for citrus orchards in central India. CT with RWHT and DRI was found most suitable under which fruit production, net profit and economic water productivity were enhanced by 3.19, 3.98 and 2.30 times respectively, compared with rainfed treatment. The energy use efficiency improved by 87% with a 49% increase in sustainability yield index in CT with RWHT and DRI than the rainfed treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mangrove-agriculture system is a distinct ecosystem that evolved in the Sundarbans, India in the last century due to anthropogenic activities and climate change consequences. Degraded-mangrove and agriculture (rice-based systems and aquaculture) exist side by side, each having their specific challenges and opportunities. In this review, we analyzed challenges faced by this unique ecosystem along with opportunities derived from technological advancement and site-specific climate change adaptation strategies. Both the mangrove and lowland rice ecosystem could act as carbon (C) sink to the tune of 27 and 0.93 t ha−1 per annum, respectively. Apart from C sequestration, mangrove-rice systems provide many ecosystem services. However, 40% of tropical and 10.5% of Sundarban mangroves (between 1930 and 2013), have been lost due to climate change induced sea-level rise, extreme weather events and human interferences. The specific challenges in this system are freshwater scarcity, high salinity, insufficient real-time seed supply, poor fertilizer-management, lack of irrigation network, and unprecedented occurrence of extreme events which seriously hamper the productivity of mangrove, rice, and aquaculture. There also exist some unique opportunities in terms of cheap labour availability, mangrove-conservation acts, cheap river-communication, and scope of ecotourism which fortunately get the attention of national and international funding agencies. In the last section of this review, we recommended ten climate change adaptation strategies that may be considered at the policy and farmer levels. The strategies broadly include the development of small-scale rainwater harvesting structures in series, the introduction of salt tolerant cultivars with water management, land shaping, establishment of multipurpose cyclone shelter at each block and empowerment of women through self-help groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting is the method of collection, store and use of rainwater where ever it falls. Tropical climatic conditions will receive extreme precipitation, i.e. in form of rain. Water stress and scarcity is happening around the world especially in urban areas as the demand is more because of density of population. As the infrastructure of basic needs at urban areas are almost up to the level, the paved areas will be present in most of the areas. The gap between supply and demand is varying much essentially in urban areas. Thus, the rainwater harvesting at plot level as well as at community level is becoming very much essential so as to minimize the gap between demand and supply. The harvested water lead to supplement the main supply of water and lessens the pressure on main source of water for the existing urban settlement. The present paper deals with the frame work for sustainable rainwater harvesting at a town level. The paper deals with correlating the selected eight study pockets in Guntur town, Andhra Pradesh, India by making the grouping of plots based on the area of the plots with regard to dwelling units related to occupants. The correlation analysis directed to establish strong relation between different study pockets with respect to LPCDs to workout settlement level Sustainable harvestable rainwater frame work with due consideration to density of population, slope, topography and meteorological parameters etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the water scarcity scenario in many parts of the Navsari city, Gujarat State in India, it is imperative to adopt cost-effective technologies that could harvest rainwater for satisfying drinking water requirements. The study was conducted with the aim of assessing the rainwater harvesting potential of Navsari city using remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS). The built-up areas of Navsari that could harness rainwater were identified by remote sensing and GIS. The effective built-up area contributing to rainwater harvesting was found to be 3.37 km². The classification was carried out using "Remap" to assess the extent of the built-up area. The city was divided into equal grids and classification of each grid was implemented. The ground truth data was used for the evaluation of the built-up area. The roof water harvesting potential was estimated considering the average annual rainfall of 1621 mm and adopting suitable runoff coefficients. The rainwater harvesting potential of roofs for rainfall of different probabilities was estimated. For return periods of 10 years, 25 years, 50 years and 100 years, the roof water harvesting potentials were estimated to be 0.226, 0.261, 0.287 and 0.312 Million Cubic Metres (MCM), respectively. The estimated average roof water harvesting potential of Navsari city was 164 million litres per year, capable of satisfying the drinking water demand of approximately 1.12 lakh people annually. The rainwater harnessed from the rooftop could augment the current water supply and immensely help in fulfilling the drinking water demand of Navsari. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines the implications of rainwater harvesting structure hapa in the Bankura district of West Bengal, India. The paper finds that proper management and harvesting of surface and subsurface runoffs in hapas can facilitate groundwater recharge and increase both net irrigated area and moisture in soil leading to higher cropping intensity and yield in dryland areas. However, dissected plateau and residual hillocks can reduce irrigation efficiency of hapas. Although sprinkler or drip irrigation along with cultivation of drought and lateritic resilient, low moisture crop can help in coping up with geophysical and climatic vulnerability, appropriate crop diversification is also necessary. There is also a need for regular maintenance and desiltation of hapas. The water user groups should play an active role for this, especially for hapas in common land. Further, scientific guidance is necessary for designing appropriate structure of hapas in different geo-physical conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal cities of southern peninsular India are characterized by highly seasonal rainfall during a few weeks of a year, a long dry-weather period, flat topography, and shallow groundwater levels. This study investigated the challenges and opportunities prevailing in implementation of low-impact development techniques (LID) as hydrologic restoration measures in catchments of the coastal city of Chennai. Rainfall patterns, which were evaluated with precipitation concentration index (PCI), showed that rainfall in the city is irregularly distributed, with only 3.5–4 months of rainfall occurrence in a year. Catchment-scale numerical modeling of green roof and rainwater harvesting (RWH) structures demonstrated that RWHs are an efficient method of stormwater management in the study area. Vegetation-based LIDs, however, could not be adopted due to their irrigation water demands, which would add to the drinking water demand in the region. Further challenges in the implementation of LIDs because of extreme weather conditions and the shallow ground water table, and potential solutions, were discussed. We concluded that LIDs retrofitted with hydrologic interventions such as managed aquifer recharge and green roofs can provide economic benefits to the low- to middle-income population in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All living species in the world need is water. These days, water consumption in family units has expanded because of the illadvised utilization of water in different exercises, for example, cultivating, vehicle washing or family unit cleaning. This causes water shortage and an expansion in family unit financial consumption. Today, farmers have a few issues in agriculture because of absence of downpours and shortage of water. The primary adage of this task is to spare time and exertion of each farmer by utilizing the water collecting strategy in a manual or programmed method of utilization. Manual intercession is required for conventional farmland procedures. Human intervention can be constrained with the motorized development of water framework. By utilizing soil dampness sensor levels of soil dampness/mugginess can be checked. At whatever point there is an adjustment in stickiness in the dirt this sensor detects the change and an intrude on signal is passed to the microcontroller and relying upon this the water system framework works. The mechanized water system framework gives a web interface to the client with the goal that the client can screen and control the framework remotely i.e., can make the water system framework ON and OFF remotely. The rainwater harvesting system can reduce the water shortage and useful in various situations.In view of measurable data accessible during quite a while, a reproduction framework is worked to decide the ideal precipitation assortment tank volume and assess the utilization of such a framework in specific areas. It creates and collaborates with the techniques for displaying and mapping fields and water profitability of downpour took care of harvests in semiarid situations of India utilisinghyper-spectral and multispectral remote detecting information and connecting the information to a similar field zone information and atmosphere station information. This is to give data to propel water reaping innovations in the horticultural grounds of the semi-dry situations of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of scarcity and deteriorating quality of drinking water especially in rural India, more attention is being paid to rainwater harvesting. A very simple and low cost drinking water technology (DWT) has been developed which uses appropriate rainwater harvesting methodology and solar purification. The costliest item in DWT is the storage tank. A possible mechanism for reducing this cost by the government of India scheme has been indicated in the article. With cost reduction, this DWT can become a viable and economical solution for potable water in rural households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tenets of sustainable development are often ignored by growing cities in developing countries. Salt Lake City, located on the eastern fringes of Kolkata, despite being a planned township, has failed to manage its water resources in a sustainable way. Results from the study show that the water supplied at the households is hard in nature, saline, and replete with dissolved solids. The problem is further aggravated due to over-extraction of groundwater resources, resulting in an intense fall of the groundwater level in the area. This paper attempts to suggest measures for sustainable water resource management, with particular emphasis on rainwater harvesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mumbai is a city where 60 per cent of the population are living in poverty in informal settlements, with low – and decreasing – water access, and low resilience to water shortage. In the middle-class areas of the city, inhabitants are being made responsible for securing their own water supplies via rainwater-harvesting technology, which is increasingly installed in new housing. This shifts responsibility for water provision from city authorities to private households. The domestication of water supplies could potentially give residents more control, and could also change the gendered power balance of water provision. However, this article argues that making the middle classes responsible for their own water provision in a context of water shortage and environmental concerns has justice implications. People living in poverty are not able to self-provision in this way; yet on the other hand, the move could free up more of the piped water supply. The article draws on three case studies offering different experiences of the impact of the policy, to reflect on concepts of power, gender, and environmental justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Availability of a safe and reliable water supply is an issue in developing nations, including India. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a site-specific source control used to satisfy human, agricultural, and safety demands for water. This study analyzed the effects of capturing rainwater for a 12.5 year period (Jan 1999–Jun 2011) to provide three ecosystem services: water supplementation for indoor use, water supplementation for food production and groundwater recharge (GWR). A hydrologic analysis was completed using satellite rainfall data and a water balance approach. Two demand scenarios, indoor and outdoor, were considered, with water in excess of demand and storage directed to recharge groundwater. An economic analysis quantified RWH system net present value. The results indicated significant ecosystem services benefits were possible from RWH in India. RWH for the purpose of providing irrigation to a small garden and allowing overflow to a drywell for GWR was concluded to be an approach to maximize benefits. This scenario provided the greatest net present value (21,764–38,851 INR), fastest payback period (0.30–0.98 years), and recharge to groundwater of more than 40% of onsite rainfall. The benefit of the outdoor vegetable irrigation was determined and the results showed that the caloric demands of the typical Indian household (2.75 kg of tomatoes and 1.05 kg of lettuce) could be met with a 20 m2garden, and excess food could be sold to offset the capital cost of the system and later for economic gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting and its utilization have a very important role to play in harnessing the production potential within dryland systems. This study assesses the performance of small rainwater harvesting structures (farm-ponds) in 5 major rainfed states of India over the period 2009–2011 using data from multiple sources and stakeholders. Rainwater which is harvested using structures of varying types and sizes was used for either supplemental irrigation or recharging open-wells. In many cases, the farm level rainwater harvesting structures were highly effective for rainfed farming and had a multiplier effect on farm income. In some situations however, it was viewed by farmers as a waste of productive land. The use of farm ponds in Maharashtra, for example, resulted in a significant increase in farm productivity (12–72%), cropping intensity and consequently farm income. In the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, farm pond water was profitably used for supplemental irrigation to mango plantations, vegetables or other crops and animal enterprises with net returns estimated to be between US$ 120 and 320 structure −1 annum −1 . Despite such examples, the adoption of the farm ponds was low, except in Maharashtra. A functional analysis of the reasons for high adoption of water harvesting structures indicated that factors such as technical support, customized design, level of farmer participation, age, existing ownership of open wells, annual rainfall and household assets were the major determinants of performance of farm-level rainwater harvesting structures. Based on this countrywide analysis, different policy and institutional options are proposed for promoting farm-level rainwater-harvesting for dryland agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates how varieties of knowledge about flooding contribute to a more effective flood management (FM) governance configuration in Chennai, India. Drawing on the assemblage perspective and using the configurations approach for socio-spatial analyses of the city, we trace the knowledge construction processes around two networked FM infrastructures, drawing out the different discourses, actor coalitions and processes of practice. We see how technical knowledge on storm water drains is embedded and transformed within the primary government network, and how complementary knowledges about the ery system are expressed through counter mappings by academic activists. Identifying potential intersections between these knowledge processes indicates a strong potential to link long-term water management strategies that would mutually contribute to addressing the city's issues of flood risks and drinking water scarcity. However, we find that the varieties of knowledge around Chennai's FM run in parallel networks with few intersections, presenting distinct institutional boundaries to cross-boundary knowledge sharing. Lastly, using integrated FM as a heuristic framework, we analyse the contributions of the different streams of knowledge and the remaining gaps in order to assess the potential of building up the interconnections in Chennai's FM configuration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental degradation in the form of water shortage and uncertainty has severely affected the food systems across the globe. Especially in India, which is dominated by rain-fed farmers, the need for sustainable water resource and its management at farm level is imperative for farming livelihoods and food security of the country. Rainwater harvesting in on-farm reservoirs (OFR) can enable crop diversification, year round cropping and seasonal vegetable cultivation in rain-fed farming systems in India. However appropriate sizing of OFR remains a serious concern especially for small and marginal farmers with limited land holdings. In this study, a novel and comprehensive simulation-optimization model was developed to determine the optimal size and utilization of OFR. The simulation consisted of water balance of soil and OFR using hydrological analysis for last 28 years, through which supplement irrigation needs and, rainwater harvesting potential was estimated. Optimal use of available water in OFR was designed using a multi-stage process wherein the model generated, compared and screened appropriate vegetable plans for Rabi cultivation. The model was simulated for different OFR sizes and the optimal size was chosen based on its economic feasibility. To demonstrate the model, a case study was simulated wherein high supplement irrigation was estimated, indicating a severe limitation in rain-fed farming. A minimum OFR size of 9.9% of the total land was required. With an increase in OFR sizes, the profits increased however, the growth rate declined as the cropping area was reduced. An OFR size of 15.5% of total land was found to be optimal which gave benefit-cost ratio and payback period of 2.4 and 6.8 years respectively. Trends in cultivation plans for different sizes of OFR was observed wherein for small OFR sizes, the model generated fewer options of cultivation plans and preferred crops with high water productivity over crops with high profitability. The proposed model is generic and applicable at multiple scales and scenarios. The model could be used by environmental decision makers, farm managers, policy makers and researchers to determine the feasibility of any water resource intervention using an ecosystem centric approach when multiple scenarios of cultivation are possible. • Potential of rainwater harvesting for sustainable water management is investigated. • Optimum utilization and economic feasibility of farm reservoir are tested. • A novel simulation-optimization model is developed using cascade of tools. • Model is demonstrated using a real case study of resource constrained farm system. • Reservoir sizes in specific range produces at least 2.5 times benefit to cost ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater management practices need to take hydrogeology, the agro-climate and demand for groundwater into account. Since agroclimatic zones have already been demarcated by the Government of India, it would aid policy makers to understand the status of groundwater recharge and discharge in each agroclimatic zone. However, developing effective policies to manage groundwater at agroclimatic zone and state levels is constrained due to a paucity of temporal data and information. With the launch of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission in 2002, it is now possible to obtain frequent data at broad spatial scales and use it to examine past trends in rain induced recharge and groundwater use. In this study, the GRACE data were used to estimate changes to monthly total water storage (TWS) and groundwater storage in different agroclimatic zones of Rajasthan, India. Furthermore, the long-term annual and seasonal groundwater storage trends in the state were estimated using the GRACE data and the trends were compared with those in rainfall data. The methodology based on GRACE data was found to be useful in detecting large scale trends in groundwater storage changes covering different agroclimatic zones. The analysis of data shows that groundwater storage trends depend on rainfall in previous years and, therefore, on the antecedent moisture conditions. Overall, the study indicates that if suitable groundwater recharge methods and sites are identified for the state, there is potential to achieve more groundwater recharge than what is currently occurring and, thus, enhancing the availability of water for irrigated agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among all the components of environment water has now become the most important one for the local communities, policymakers, politicians, international funding agencies, multinational corporations, NGO activists, lawyers, governments and academicians. Never in the history of water the number of stakeholders are so numerous as of today who are equally vociferous and each one of them has constructed their own narrative on the management of nature's one of the most vital life support systems. In this paper a modest and preliminary attempt has been made to compare and contrast some contemporary narratives in the context of rainwater harvesting. Broadly, one narrative comes from the Alwar district of Rajasthan which has now become an international phenomenon particularly after the amazing grass root level works done by Rajendra Singh and his Tarun Bharat Sangh(TBS).The other narrative is derived from the texts which are recently being produced by the leftist intellectuals, activists and policymakers of West Bengal. The materials for these narratives on rainwater harvesting have been collected from various documentary sources like newspapers, journals, books and the author's own face to face interactions with the engineers and activists as well as fieldworks done in some villages of Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal. The juxtaposition of these two kinds of narratives reveal the wide divergence between government action and grass root activism because these narratives are not only constructed by their authors in the form of written texts and/or oral deliberations but they also reflect the real material world managed and constructed by human beings backed by their ideologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crop production in the district of Kasaragod in Kerala State (India) is characterized by low input-low yield concept and rain-fed agriculture. A field study was conducted in Western Ghat region of the district to develop a suitable rainwater harvesting system adoptable to hilly terrains and to test its efficacy for improving the use efficiency of the harvested water by its multiple uses. The cost-benefit analysis of the water harvesting system was also carried out to find out its affordability to farmers. The water harvesting system has been developed by integrating three components: (i) improving the productivity of coconut and component crops in the cropping units (ii) developing multiple water use systems, and (iii) the conjunctive use of the harvested water along with other surface and groundwater resources. Based on the estimated annual costs and returns, the Benefit -Cost ratio was found to be 1.69 and all other financial viability criteria (IRR and NPV) were also found favourable for investment on a lined water harvesting tank integrated with a micro-irrigation system and fish farming. The study suggested that the rainwater harvesting could be implemented as a viable alternative to conventional water supply or on-farm irrigation projects considering the fact that any land anywhere can be used to harvest rainwater. Further, the water use efficiency can be improved through effective harvesting and subsequent multiple uses of stored water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overuse of groundwater in coastal areas, due to high population and agricultural activity results in seawater intrusion into the coastal aquifer. This paper presents the control measures taken to manage aquifer recharge (MAR) and also to overcome the problem of seawater intrusion into the coastal aquifer along the Kalangi river, Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh, India having connectivity with Pulicat (saltwater) lake estuary. Due to overexploitation of groundwater and less rainfall in past years, adjacent seawater has started intruding in the Kalangi river sub-surface and deteriorating groundwater quality up to 11.6 km from the confluence of the river with Pulicat lake. To prevent this situtation, subsurface dams were constructed in traditional manner using local earth material in three different places across the Kalangi river near Sullurpet town. The water storage capacities calculated after the sub-surface dams' construction are 1.28 mcft at GK Engineering College, 6.23 mcft at Challamagudi and 3.143 mcft at Holy Cross School sites. The Holy Cross School sub-surface dam is the first full scale dam-cum-check dam constructed to prevent salt water intrusion in the Kalangi river at Sullurpet, Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh. At the Kalangi river estuary portion (at the mouth of sea) a groyne was reconstructed over old groyne site with the introduction of clay bed and wooden sheet piles at down stream. Apart from prevention of sea water entry into Kalangi river sub-surface (during seasons) the groyne top level was raised to prevent mixing of high sea water tides with fresh water and ensuring additional storage of fresh water at upstream side. The reconstructed groyne was serving the purpose of obstructing the surface seawater entry in the Kalangi river and water quality has improved in the river as well as in the wells. After construction of sub-surface dam, as per the Simpson ratio classification, there is substantial improvement of water quality in the SHAR infiltration well situated near the Holy Cross School sub-surface dam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, as a result of development, the demand for water is increasing both in urban and rural areas. This may increase tensions and disputes over sharing of water resources. For water demand management, it is crucial to know the details of actual water use on a household level. Therefore, this paper explores the pattern of domestic water consumption in semi-arid Dhani Mohabbatpur village of Hisar district in Haryana state of India, to improve the understanding of how local communities in the region relate to water, based on questionnaires and interview surveys of 763 households. The study has examined the households daily and activity wise water consumption, sources, quality, duration, frequency of water supply, distance of different sources and the level of awareness about rainwater harvesting. Results of the study revealed that the daily average water consumption for the village was found to be 117.0 l per person per capita per day (SD = 35.8). Washing of clothes consumes the highest amount of water, whereas 85 % of the households are using government water supplies with very safe water quality. However, 77 % households are not satisfied with duration of water supply and 86 % do not have awareness about rainwater harvesting technology. This needs to be addressed immediately by changing public perception through media and by organizing public awareness programs. It is hoped that the results of the study would benefit the policy and planning executives in India in optimizing the existing water resources for rural development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Surla valley of the mountainous Sirmaur District of Himachal Pradesh, springs are the only available source of water for domestic and agricultural use. The drying of springs during summer causes a lot of hardship to the inhabitants of this region. Therefore, a study of environmental isotopes (2H, 18O, 3H) along with hydrogeochemistry and geomorphology was undertaken to identify the recharge zones of the drying springs. From the stable isotope data of rainwater, altitude effect was estimated (-0.6‰ for &dgr;18O per 100 m elevation) and recharge zones of the drying springs were identified (+700 to +1150 m amsl). Based on the recharge elevations identified from the isotopic study and from the interpretation of the geomorphological setting of the valley and taking into consideration the availability of space, it has been decided that contour-bunding, or building of check dams or levees structures with gabion are suitable methods of rainwater harvesting for augmenting recharge of the drying springs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upper Karha watershed from semi-arid part of Deccan Volcanic Province, India was investigated to identify the potential sites to construct rainwater harvesting structures with the help of remote sensing and geographical information system. Attempt was made to understand the basaltic terrain in spatial context to find out the rainwater harvesting structures like farm ponds, percolation tank, check dams and gully plugs deriving from thematic layers, such as landuse/landcover, slope, soil, drainage and runoff from Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery and other collateral data. Subsequently, these layers were processed to derive runoff from Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method using Arc-CN runoff tool. The SCS-CN method shows that the high runoff potential is from water-body, agriculture land (including harvested land) and followed by settlement, open scrub, dense scrub and low for the open forest, dense forest area. Parameters like hydro-geomorphology, geology were considered as per Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development specifications for identification of the structures. The thematic layers overlaid using intersection based on these specifications. Derived sites were investigated for its suitability and implementation by ground truth field verification. In conclusion, the method adopted in present study deciphers the more precise, accurate and ability to process large catchment area than other methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater extraction is rampant in many developing countries and urban areas whereas the natural recharge is decreasing due to covering of Earth's surface for various developmental activities. This leads to declining levels of groundwater and deterioration in groundwater quality. Artificial recharge with rain water harvesting techniques offers an excellent scope to arrest this degradation. This paper presents a study that analyzes the influence of rain water harvesting (RWH) on groundwater storage and quality. Chennai City, India is selected as study area, as major RWH implementation has taken place during 2002-2003 due to Government legislation. Preliminary analysis of groundwater levels were done spatially and temporally. Groundwater table contours were drawn using the GIS software for pre- (1999-2000) and post-RWH (2009-2010) periods. The groundwater levels follow a decreasing trend before implementation of RWH where as a positive increasing trend takes place after construction of RWH structures. 'Groundwater Estimation Committee (GEC)' norms of Government of India were used to estimate the change in storage during pre- and post-RWH periods, which are found to be 1.76 × 106 and 32.77 × 106 m3, respectively. The results show that the implementation of RWH has increased the groundwater storage considerably. Also, the influence of RWH on groundwater quality is found to be encouraging in some parts of the studied area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indian megacities face severe water supply problems owing to factors ranging from growing population to high municipal pipe leakage rates; no Indian city provides 24/7 water supply. Current approaches to addressing the problem have been 'utility centric,' overlooking the significance of decentralized activities by consumers, groundwater extraction via private wells, and aquifer recharge by rainwater harvesting. We propose a framework that makes it possible to evaluate a wider range of centralized and decentralized policies than previously considered. The framework was used to simulate water supply and demand in a simulation model of Chennai, India. Three very different policies, supply augmentation, efficiency improvement, and rainwater harvesting, were evaluated using the model. The model results showed that none of the three policies perfectly satisfied our criteria of efficiency, reliability, equity, financial viability, and revenue generation. Instead, a combination of rainwater harvesting and efficiency improvement best meets these criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Equity is central to community-based development efforts, but community perspectives on equity are seldom examined in the development literature. This study investigates how equity in a rainwater harvesting program is understood, and practiced in two Rajasthani communities. Drawing on Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic capital, we find that the symbolic capital accrued from contributing to the project is as central to community understandings of equity as the distribution of benefits from the project. We find that a continuing sense of community despite heterogeneity is itself a form of symbolic capital. Community-based valuations of equity thus enable a more catholic approach to costs, and benefits that broadens our knowledge both of equity, and of development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Groundwater is declining at a very fast rate in the central plain region of Indian Punjab, comprising about 80% area of the state. Consequently, centrifugal pumps, which were earlier being used by farmers for pumping groundwater, are being replaced by costly submersible pumps. To control the declining water table situation, the groundwater aquifers need to be recharged to sustain agricultural production. Various groundwater recharge techniques, namely rooftop rain-water harvesting, recharge through surface runoff using tubewells, village ponds, surface drainage networks and optimal rainwater conservation in paddy fields. Various policy issues have been discussed for preventing overexploitation of groundwater aquifers to regulate and control groundwater development and management on a sustainable basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper recommends a revision of watershed development policy in India in relation to the planning of development interventions involving agricultural intensification and rainwater harvesting following biophysical and societal impact studies carried out on two watershed development projects in Karnataka. A need for changes in policy has arisen in response to progressive catchments closure at the basin level and declining volumes of water flowing into village level reservoirs (known locally as tanks). Flow reductions have occurred largely as a result of increased agricultural intensification over the past 10–15 years. Field levelling, field bund construction, soil water conservation measures, farm ponds, the increase in areas under horticulture and forestry and the increased abstraction and use of groundwater for irrigation are all contributing factors to reduced flows. Planning methodologies and approaches, which may have been appropriate 20 years ago for planning water harvesting within watershed development projects, are no longer appropriate today. New planning approaches are required which (1) take account of these changed flow conditions and (2) are also able to take account of externalities, which occur when actions of some affect the livelihoods of others who have no control or influence over such activities and which (3) contribute to the maintenance of agreed minimum downstream flows for environmental and other purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper recognises the need for a revision of watershed development policy in India in relation to the planning of development interventions involving agricultural intensification and rainwater harvesting and the need for new approaches to assist the planning process. Building on, and using as an example, the results of biophysical and societal impact studies carried out on two watershed development projects in Karnataka three new management/dissemination tools, are suggested. These are (1) the web-based geographical information systems exploratory, climate land assessment and impact management tool dissemination tool for disseminating to policymakers and non-specialist stakeholders the downstream impacts of watershed interventions, (2) the ‘quadrant’ approach for ensuring that sustainability criteria are met and (3) Bayesian networks to investigate the biophysical and societal impacts of interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrologic and economic analysis of the on-farm reservoir (OFR) was carried out in rainfed rice–mustard cropping systems in Eastern India followed by 2 years of field experiments in 1999 and 2000. The average contribution (average of 2 years) of direct rainfall and surface runoff from the diked crop fields contributed, respectively, about 79.5 and 20.5% to the total OFR inflow. The average contribution of evaporation loss, seepage and percolation loss and supplemental irrigation from the OFR contributed, respectively, about 10.0, 31.2 and 58.8% to the total OFR outflow. There was an average increase of rice yield of 44.0% over the rainfed rice because of application of 8.4cm supplemental irrigation from the OFR. Thus, with an application of 4.5cm supplemental irrigation from the OFR, 15.40% increase of mustard yield was recorded in 1999. Economic analysis indicated average net profit of Rs. 700 (US$ 1=Rupees (Rs.) 44.75 in Indian currency) from a farm area of 800m2. Average values of benefit–cost ratio, internal rate of return and pay back period of the OFR irrigation system were evaluated as 1.17, 14.8%, and 16 years, respectively. The study reveals that the OFR irrigation in small landholders is economically feasible system for rainwater harvesting and providing supplemental irrigation in rainfed farming system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

India is a vast country and is highly diversified in terms of natural resources and socio-economic setup. Moreover, its water resources are unevenly distributed in space and time. With increasing population and increasing aspiration for improved standard of living, there is an acute pressure on the demand and availability of water. Though the idea of interlinking of rivers is not a new concept in India, it had rather persisted long back as much as in other countries of ancient civilization. National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has given the real shape to the proposal of the interlinking of rivers of the country. In India the river-linking project in a sensible and scientific manner will not only allow the prevention of the colossal wastage of a vitally important natural resource, mitigate the flood and inundation by detaining flowing surface water of rainy seasons, but also ensure availability of water to drier areas; combating both flood and drought simultaneously. Moreover, this project will generate 34,000 MW of hydropower and irrigation of an additional 35 million hectares (135,135 square miles) of land. Though linking of rivers may initially appear to be a costly proposition in ecological, geological, hydrological and economical terms, in the long run the net benefits coming from it will far outweigh these costs or losses. However, in the absence of any definite international legal framework, Bangladesh has raised objections against the project. This paper aims at looking at this long-term plan, the project proposal, its involvement and impact not only on the states of India, India as a whole, but also on its neighbouring nations which are linked with India through the waterways, and share the common climatic conditions and economic status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The economic importance of mining in the Indian Desert is second only to agriculture. Land disturbed by mining, however, has only recently been the focus of rehabilitation efforts. This research assesses the success of rehabilitation plans used to revegetate gypsum mine spoils within the environmental constraints of the north west Indian hot-desert ecosystem. The rehabilitation plan first examined both mined and unmined areas and established assessments of existing vegetative cover and the quality of native soils and mine spoils. Tests were made on the effect of the use, and conservation, of available water through rainwater harvesting, amendment application (for physical and chemical spoil modification), plant establishment protocols, and the selection of appropriate germplasm. Our results show that the resulting vegetative cover is capable of perpetuating itself under natural conditions while concurrently meeting the needs of farmers. Although the mine spoils are defi cient in organic matter and phosphorus, they possess adequate amounts of all other nutrients. Total boron concentrations (g 5.0 mg kg[sup -1]) in both the topsoil and mine spoil indicate potentially phytotoxic conditions. Electrical conductance of mine spoil is 6-10 times higher than for topsoil with a neaR-neutral pH. Populations of spoil fungi, Azotobactor, and nitrifying bacteria are low. The soil moisture storage in rainwater harvesting plots increased by 8 % over the control and 48 % over the unmined area. As a result of rehabilitation efforts, mine spoils show a steady buildup in organic carbon, and P and K due to the decomposition of farmyard manure and the contribution of nitrogen fixation by the established leguminous plant species. The rehabilitation protocol used at the site appears to have been successful. Following revegetation of the area with a mixture of trees, shrubs, and grasses, native unplanted species have become established. Species diversity, measured in terms of species richness, increased after one year and then gradually declined over time; the decline was the result of the loss of annual species. The study not only develops methods of gypsum mine land rehabilitation but also helps in understanding pro cesses of rehabilitation success in arid regions and emphasizes the importance of long-term monitoring of rehabilitation success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated an innovative decentralized water system which combined rainwater harvesting with wastewater reclamation to generate 39% of the water resources needed for a higher education institution with student and staff accommodation in India. We collected performance data to critically appraise the current water system, design alternatives and water management optimization opportunities. The campus was recently built in a hot, semi-arid region of India with a summer, monsoon and winter season. It represented in a microcosm the vision of leading Indian engineers for a more sustainable urban systems future. We collated the water infrastructure costs, blue and recycled water demands, chemical demands, electricity demands and operational costs over a calendar year. The annual institutional water demand was 379,768 m3, of which 32% was sourced from reclaimed wastewater, and 7% from roof-collected rainwater. Electricity consumption was 0.40 kWh/m3 for drinking water treatment, and 0.62 kWh/m3 for wastewater treatment, in line with median values reported for centralized systems. Rainwater harvesting and wastewater reclamation accounted for 42% of the water infrastructure costs, with a predicted payback period of >250 years through reduced operational costs. Scenario analysis recommended a water system design alternative with wastewater reclamation for ground maintenance only, which was predicted to yield similar environmental benefits, with an infrastructure cost payback period of only 15 years. Scenario analysis also revealed how better water management to address leakage, and more drought-tolerant landscaping, could improve environmental metrics of the current system by up to 52% and reduce operational costs by up to 23%. Reducing high domestic water usage was found to be essential to secure gains achieved with water infrastructure innovations. Rainwater harvesting had high infrastructure costs, and water policy in low- and middle-income countries should instead support wastewater reclamation and best practice in water management. Image 1 • A decentralized water system with zero discharge was investigated in India. • It generated locally 39% of the water needed for a higher education institution. • Electricity use for drinking and wastewater treatment was 0.40 and 0.62 kWh/m3. • Rainwater harvesting had high capital costs, making it unsustainable. • Wastewater reclamation for ground maintenance is a sustainable technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field study evaluated the performance of direct well recharge structures (DWRS) in order to harvest and filter farm runoff and its discharge into open dug wells to augment groundwater recharge. This was undertaken between 2016 and 2018 using a total of 11 wells in the Dharta watershed, situated in a semi-arid hardrock region of Udaipur district, Rajasthan, India. The depth to water level in each DWRS well was monitored weekly for 1 to 3 years before and after the DWRS was established, and water samples were taken for water quality analysis (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, fluoride, and Escherichia coli) before and during the monsoon period. For each DWRS well, two control wells in close proximity were also monitored and sampled. Five of the DWRS established in 2018 also had flow meters installed in order to measure discharge from the filter to the well. The volume of water recharged through DWRS into individual wells during the 2018 monsoon ranged from 2 to 176 m3 per well. Although the mean rise in water levels over the monsoon was higher in DWRS wells than in nearby control wells, the difference was not significant. Values of pH, EC, TDS, and F decreased in DWRS and control wells as each monsoon progressed, whereas the turbidity of wells with DWRS increased slightly. There was no significant difference between DWRS and control wells for pH, EC/TDS, turbidity, or fluoride. The presence of E. coli in DWRS wells was higher than in control wells, however, E. coli exceeded drinking water guidelines in all sampled wells. On the basis of this study, it is recommended that rural runoff should not be admitted to wells that are used for, or close to, wells used for drinking water supplies, even though salinity and fluoride concentrations may be reduced. For this study, none of the 11 DWRS wells produced sufficient additional recharge to potentially increase dry season irrigation supplies to justify expenditure on DWRS. This even applies to the DWRS well adjacent to a small ephemeral stream that had a significantly larger catchment area than those drawing on farmers' fields alone. An important and unexpected finding of this study was that no sampled open dug well met drinking water standards. This has led to a shift in local priorities to implement well-head water quality protection measures for wells used for drinking water supplies. It is recommended that parapet walls be built around the perimeter of such dug wells, as well as having covers be installed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted with an aim to provide practical solution for the groundwater management in three villages namely Singhola, Ghoga and Dhirpur of the North-West Delhi, India. LANDSAT remote-sensing datasets for the last four decades (1977–2018) were assessed to determine changes in vegetation cover at the selected sites. The Google Earth Engine was used to determine how values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) were found to have varied spatially and over time for the selected sites. Strong correlations were found between the NDVI values of surface features including waterbodies, forest land, agricultural land and urban areas in Singhola, Ghoga and Dhirpur, respectively. The relative infiltration capacity of soils was highest (92.9%) and lowest (57%) for Singhola and Dhirpur, respectively, due to spatial differences in soil texture. In each village, locations exhibiting a higher soil infiltration capacity could be used for implementing managed aquifer recharge schemes using rainwater harvested from rooftops in the villages. This assessment indicated that the village of Ghoga has the highest potential (3,76,98,013.08 m3) for aquifer recharge through rooftop rainwater harvesting as compared to the other two villages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]