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Rotavirus A (RVA) is a major viral cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) worldwide. G12 RVA strains have emerged globally since 2007. There has been no report of the whole genome sequences of G12 RVAs in Indonesia. We performed the complete genome analysis by the next‐generation sequencing of five G12 strains from hospitalized children with AGE in Surabaya from 2017 to 2018. All five G12 strains were Wa‐like strains (G12‐P[8]‐I1‐R1‐C1‐M1‐A1‐N1‐T1‐E1‐H1) and were clustered into lineage‐III of VP7 gene phylogenetic tree. STM430 sample was observed as a mixed‐infection between G12 and G1 strains: G12/G1‐P[8]‐I1‐R1‐C1‐M1‐A1‐N1‐T1‐E1‐H1. A phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that all five Indonesian G12 strains (SOEP379, STM371, STM413, STM430, and STM433) were genetically close to each other in all 11 genome segments with 98.0%–100% nucleotide identities, except VP3 and NSP4 of STM430, suggesting that these strains have originated from a similar ancestral G12 RVA. The VP3 and NSP4 genome segments of STM430‐G12P[8] were separated phylogenetically from those of the other four G12 strains, probably due to intra‐genotype reassortment between the G12 and G1 Wa‐like strains. The change from G12P[6] lineage‐II in 2007 to G12P[8] lineage‐III 2017–2018 suggests the evolution and diversity of G12 RVAs in Indonesia over the past approximately 10 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rotavirus A (RVA) is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans and animals worldwide. As a result of the segmented nature of the rotavirus genome, genetic reassortment commonly occurs. This study aims to clarify the genetic characteristics of RVAs circulating in Indonesia. From June 2015 through August 2016, stool samples were collected from 134 children aged <5 years (71 male and 63 female) with acute gastroenteritis who were inpatients at a private hospital in Surabaya, Indonesia. All stool samples were screened for RVA antigen using immunochromatography. Forty-two samples (31.3%, 42/134) were RVA antigen-positive. All RVA positive samples tested showed the unusual combinations of G3P[8] ( n  = 36) and G3P[6] ( n  = 3) with a short RNA pattern by G/P typing and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Whole genome analysis by next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed for 11 strains to determine the RVA genotypes. Eleven rotavirus strains were found to carry a DS-like genetic backbone; nine strains showed a G3-P[8]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A2-N2-T2-E2-H2 genome constellation, which was recently reported in Australia, Hungary, Spain and Brazil; as well, two strains showed a G3-P[6]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A2-N2-T2-E2-H2 genome constellation. The phylogenetic tree based on the VP7 gene showed that all 11 strains were classified as equine-like G3, which is genetically distinct and different in origin from typical human G3 strains. The phylogenetic tree based on the NSP4 gene showed that six strains were classified as bovine-like strain and the remaining five were classified as human strain. In conclusion, we identified the strains which are intergenogroup reassortants containing an equine-like G3 VP7, a P[8])/P[6] VP4, with a DS-1-like genetic backbone. These findings suggest that equine-like G3P[8] and P[6] RVA strains have been circulating in the Indonesian population for at least 1 year and probably longer, indicating a diversity of RVAs in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noroviruses are recognized as a leading cause of outbreaks and sporadic cases of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) among individuals of all ages worldwide, especially in children <5 years old. We investigated the epidemiology of noroviruses among hospitalized children at two hospitals in East Java, Indonesia. Stool samples were collected from 966 children with AGE during September 2015–July 2019. All samples were analyzed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the amplification of both the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and the capsid genes of noroviruses. The genotypes were determined by phylogenetic analyses. In 2015–2019, noroviruses were detected in 12.3% (119/966) of the samples. Children <2 years old showed a significantly higher prevalence than those ≥2 years old (P = 0.01). NoV infections were observed throughout the year, with the highest prevalence in December. Based on our genetic analyses of RdRp, GII.[P31] (43.7%, 31/71) was the most prevalent RdRp genotype, followed by GII.[P16] (36.6%, 26/71). GII.[P31] was a dominant genotype in 2016 and 2018, whereas GII.[P16] was a dominant genotype in 2015 and 2017. Among the capsid genotypes, the most predominant norovirus genotype from 2015 to 2018 was GII.4 Sydney_2012 (33.6%, 40/119). The most prevalent genotype in each year was GII.13 in 2015, GII.4 Sydney_2012 in 2016 and 2018, and GII.3 in 2017. Based on the genetic analyses of RdRp and capsid sequences, the strains were clustered into 13 RdRp/capsid genotypes; 12 of them were discordant, e.g., GII.4 Sydney[P31], GII.3[P16], and GII.13[P16]. The predominant genotype in each year was GII.13[P16] in 2015, GII.4 Sydney[P31] in 2016, GII.3[P16] in 2017, and GII.4 Sydney[P31] in 2018. Our results demonstrate high detection rates and genetic diversity of norovirus GII genotypes in pediatric AGE samples from Indonesia. These findings strengthen the importance of the continuous molecular surveillance of emerging norovirus strains. • Noroviruses were detected in 12.3% (119/966) of the samples during 2015–2019. • GII.[P16] was dominant in 2015 and 2017 but GII.[P31] was in 2016 and 2018. • GII.13 was dominant in 2015, GII.4 Sydney_2012 in 2016 and 2018, and GII.3 in 2017. • The diversity of norovirus GII genotypes and rapid evolution in Indonesia is shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of liver disease and a potential cause of substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. The overall prevalence of HCV infection is 2%, representing 120 million people worldwide. Current standard treatment using pegylated interferon and ribavirin is effective in only 50% of the patients infected with HCV genotype 1, and is associated with significant side effects. Therefore, it is still of importance to develop new drugs for treatment of HCV. Antiviral substances obtained from natural products, including medicinal plants, are potentially good targets to study. In this study, we evaluated Indonesian medicinal plants for their anti-HCV activities., Methods: Ethanol extracts of 21 samples derived from 17 species of medicinal plants explored in the East Java region were tested. Anti-HCV activities were determined by a cell culture method using Huh7.5 cells and HCV strains of 9 different genotypes (1a to 7a, 1b and 2b)., Results: Four of the 21 samples tested showed antiviral activities against HCV: Toona sureni leaves (TSL) with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 13.9 and 2.0 μg/ml against the HCV J6/JFH1-P47 and -P1 strains, respectively, Melicope latifolia leaves (MLL) with IC50 of 3.5 and 2.1 μg/ml, respectively, Melanolepis multiglandulosa stem (MMS) with IC50 of 17.1 and 6.2 μg/ml, respectively, and Ficus fistulosa leaves (FFL) with IC50 of 15.0 and 5.7 μg/ml, respectively. Time-of-addition experiments revealed that TSL and MLL inhibited both at the entry and post-entry steps while MMS and FFL principally at the entry step. TSL and MLL inhibited all of 11 HCV strains of all the genotypes tested to the same extent. On the other hand, FFL showed significantly weaker inhibitory activities against the HCV genotype 1a strain, and MMS against the HCV strains of genotypes 2b and 7a to a lesser extent, compared to the other HCV genotypes., Conclusions: Ethanol extracts of TSL, MLL, MMS and FFL showed antiviral activities against all the HCV genotypes tested with the exception that some genotype(s) showed significant resistance to FFL and to MMS to a lesser extent. These plant extracts may be good candidates for the development of anti-HCV drugs.