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We examine how agricultural subsidies may induce deforestation and interact with conservation programs by analyzing two large-scale national programs in Mexico that have existed simultaneously for more than a decade: an agricultural subsidy for livestock (PROGAN) and a program of payments for ecosystem services (PES). Looking across the entire Mexican landscape, we exploit the surprises in the timing of enrollment in PROGAN's waves, fluctuations in program payments, and the change in the value of the subsidy induced by inflation and currency fluctuations to identify the impacts of the livestock subsidy on environmental outcomes. We find that PROGAN increased municipal deforestation by 7 per cent. The deforestation effects of PROGAN were smaller in municipalities with higher concentrations of PES recipients. We suggest that livestock subsidies could be better targeted to places with low deforestation risk and high livestock productivity to maximize food production and minimize negative externalities caused by deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Evaluate the effect of fire on natural regeneration and forest species diversity in a medium superennifolia forest in southeastern Mexico. Design/methodology/approach: Natural regeneration was classified into three height categories (0 to 30 cm, 31 cm to 1 m and 1 to 3 m) and trees in three forest sites burned and unburnt by fire. Results: A total of 1193 individuals belonging to 69 species in 29 taxonomic families were recorded. Regeneration from 0 to 30 cm presented significant differences in species diversity in unburnt forest sites, while in regeneration from 1 to 3 m in burned forest sites. Limitations on study/implications: These types of studies are a first approximation to natural regeneration after a fire in tropical forests, so it is important to maintain permanent sites to monitor the recovery of ecosystems and thus be able to establish management strategies for the restoration of these ecosystems. Findings/conclusions: Regeneration after the fire was established with a low but constant number of species, indicating a tendency towards vegetation resilience. This information allows government institutions to make better decisions on the management and prevention of these ecosystems in Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bark beetle infestations have historically been primary drivers of stand thinning in Mexican pine forests. However, bark beetle impacts have become increasingly extensive and intense, apparently associated with climate change. Our objective was to describe the possible association between abundance of bark beetle flying populations and the occurrence of given value intervals of temperature, precipitation and their balance, in order to have a better comprehension of the climatic space that might trigger larger insect abundances, an issue relevant in the context of the ongoing climatic change. Here, we monitored the abundance of two of the most important bark beetle species in Mexico, Dendroctonus frontalis and D. mexicanus. We sampled 147 sites using pheromone-baited funnel traps along 24 altitudinal transects in 11 Mexican states, from northwestern Chihuahua to southeastern Chiapas, from 2015 to 2017. Through mixed model analysis, we found that the optimum Mean Annual Temperatures were 17°C–20°C for D. frontalis in low-elevation pine-oak forest, while D. mexicanus had two optimal intervals: 11–13°C and 15–18°C. Higher atmospheric Vapor Pressure Deficit (≥ 1.0) was correlated with higher D. frontalis abundances, indicating that warming-amplified drought stress intensifies trees' vulnerability to beetle attack. As temperatures and drought stress increase further with projected future climatic changes, it is likely that these Dendroctonus species will increase tree damage at higher elevations. Pine forests in Mexico are an important source of livelihood for communities inhabiting those areas, so providing tools to tackle obstacles to forest growth and health posed by changing climate is imperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey was done to estimate margay abundance and activity in the context of high forest loss rates from avocado plantations for the temperate forest region of Michoacán state. Camera trap surveys were conducted from November 2015 to April 2020, recording 21 Margay detections of seven individuals. The capture rate ranged from 0.09 to 0.83 records/100 trap nights. The mean temporal density was 0.12 ind./km2, with an activity peak between 04:00 and 05:00 h. The Margay could serve as indicator species for restoration and forest conservation initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Future climate forecasts predict major changes that will have negative impacts on the distribution, abundance, and dynamics of forest ecosystems. In Mexico, there is evidence of symptoms of massive forest decline; however, there is no consensus in terms of attributing these symptoms to climate change. This study aimed to provide evidence of forest decline possibly associated with climatic change in the highland pine (Pinus hartwegii Lindl.) populations of the Nevado de Toluca Flora and Fauna Protection Area. Using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) equipped with multispectral sensors, the study applied digital photogrammetry techniques, automated tree crown detection algorithms, and calculation of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and leaf chlorophyll index (LCI) to assess forest health across an altitudinal transect (from 3300 m to the timberline at 4040 m elevation). Climate analysis was conducted with TerraClimate data using mean annual temperature (MAT), April temperature, and Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) from the studied altitudinal transect and its xeric limit. We found that lower altitude populations had significantly higher stress levels, indicating forest decline phenomena, while intermediate altitude populations showed greater vigor of the detected trees. Statistically significant differences in the NDVI and LCI values along the altitudinal gradient provided evidence of forest decline in terms of forest vigor and productivity, with the greatest disturbance found at the lower altitude of the examined forest species. The analysis of the climatic data revealed an increase in April temperature +1.4 °C of the xeric limit of the transect (low altitude) when comparing the reference period, 1961–1990 (mean: 12.17 °C), with the decade prior to our study (2011–2020; mean: 13.57 °C). This would be equivalent to an upward shift in elevation of 280 m of the xeric limit. In addition, the PDSI analysis revealed that droughts are becoming increasingly intense at a rate of 0.06 PDSI units per decade, with greater intensity in the last five years. These findings highlight the negative impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems and the urgent need for alternative forest management and conservation practices to increase resilience and adaptation in the temperate forests of Mexico. This study sets a precedent for further research to improve our understanding of the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems and the development of sustainable management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The state of Michoacán in central Mexico supplies nearly 50% of the global avocado trade in a region known as the Michoacan Avocado Belt or Avocadoland. Fire has been a component associated with regional land-use change processes. We documented fire regime attributes for the period 2000–2017, discussed the use of fire related to the expansion of avocado orchards, and evaluated the role of atmospheric variables and human infrastructure. There was a mean of 276 fires covering 3287 ha of forest per year. Over 80% of the burned area was covered by pine and pine–oak forests, with a strong correlation of ignitions with the distance to urban settlements, roads, agricultural plots, and avocado orchards. There is a median fire return interval of 2–3 years, and the distance to avocado orchards and main roads was highly correlated with fire recurrence. Final users of the international marketing of this fruit may be unaware of the fire-related land-use changes, namely, the damage to biodiversity, forest health, and water bodies, as well as to producers' well-being, behind the great demand for avocados. The present conditions of insecurity and social conflict must be addressed to guarantee, among other things, the conservation of these diverse forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sectional equations and mathematical volume models are a reliable way to estimate carbon sequestration and storage, which is a key foundation for forest management and conservation. The objective of this study was to assess stem volume and form factor through the classical sectional method to then, using five regression models commonly used for forest management, identify the most suitable mathematical model to estimate the stem volume in a commercial forest plantation (CFP) of Pinus pseudostrobus Lindley in the Comunidad Indígena de Nuevo San Juan Parangaricutiro, Michoacán, in Western Mexico. By using 10, 15 and 20 yr.-old sampling points and two sampling methods (destructive and nondestructive), we found a form factor 0.42, 0.48 and 0.51 and stem volume of 0.098 m3, 0.400 m3 and 0.804 m3 for the three ages assessed, which presented diameter classes (DC), from 10 to 45 cm. The mathematical models identified that age of plantation determines stem volume and form factor, and the models that best fit volume estimation were the Schumacher-Hall model and the Australian model with an R2adj range between 0.89 and 0.99. Estimation of stem volume is of vital importance to assess the income generated by the timber industry, and relevant for forest conservation, management, and carbon sequestration studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To analyze the changes in land-use and vegetation (LUV), from 1985 to 2014, in the sites in northern Mexico where 16 pine trees listed in the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 are collected. Design/Methodology/Approach: Based on consultations in botanical collections, a georeferenced database of the species under study was developed. A point coverage was created to which LUV vector information from Series I (1985) and VI (2014) was added. Subsequently, LUV class changes were identified during the evaluation period through spatial analysis and geoprocessing. Results: A total of 2,242 georeferenced records of pine species were obtained. Fifty percent of the pine records consulted in collections with Series I information belong to other non-primary forest categories of LUV, while with Series VI information with this condition rose to 58.7%. Consequently, in the study period major changes occurred in the conversion of primary forests to agricultural lands, pasture, secondary vegetation in coniferous and oak forests, and mainly urban areas. Limitations/Implications: The availability of larger-scale cartographic material limited the generation of a risk analysis study about the changes and threats to forest conservation. Findings/Conclusions: The number of collection sites registered in coniferous forest, scrubland, and primary oak forest in Series I —which are now agricultural lands, water bodies, pastures, and urban areas— was significantly lower than in Series VI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the end of 2019, Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) proposed a new initiative to protect trees: Global Conservation Consortia, each focused on a specific group of plants of special interest. To date, eight such Consortia have been created, coordinated by BGCI, with the one for oaks led by the Morton Arboretum. In 2020, a regional branch of GCCO (Global Conservation Consortium for Oak) was established for Mexico and Central America. The main task has been to develop a network to encourage the efforts of all those working with oaks, including scientists, conservationists, institutions, and other organizations. The network's objectives are to determine the distribution of threatened oaks, to introduce them into cultivation, and to prevent further reduction in natural populations or their extinction. Herein we report on the most important achievements of this GCCO regional branch, as well as on how these efforts are benefitting oaks in the wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild edible mushrooms are non-timber forest products highly valued as food supplements and a source of income for rural communities. The objective is to quantify the use and knowledge of wild edible mushrooms across forest socio-ecosystems of central México. We conducted 40 household structured surveys in five Mestizo communities in the state of Michoacán (central-western México) to evaluate their mycological knowledge. We also compare the knowledge of these Mestizo people with that of the surrounding Indigenous communities. We compiled and updated a list of the wild edible mushrooms used in the whole state, which contains 243 mushroom species used out of the 371 used in México. Here, in these five communities, we recorded 13 species currently used (a median of seven). In four communities, 1 kg of mushrooms on average is collected per harvesting trip, whereas in one of the communities, people extracted 3 kg of mushrooms per trip on average and 5–15 kg per season, respectively. The most used and valued species were Amanita basii, Amanita jacksonii, and Hypomyces lactifluorum. Despite being highly valued resources, land managers do not include mushrooms in the decision-making process for planning forest management. We found that knowledge and use of wild edible mushrooms in Mestizo communities are lower than those in regional Indigenous communities in localities with similar climate and forest vegetation. Fungal resources like wild edible mushrooms in the area are therefore underutilized, making forested areas more vulnerable to land-use change. Promotion of mycological knowledge may contribute to enhancing forest conservation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Payments for hydrological services (PHS) apply an incentive-based approach to achieve conservation and socioeconomic goals. PHS policies are most successful when they are designed and implemented with participation from diverse stakeholders and respond to local needs and conditions. Role-play simulations (RPS) engage stakeholders from different organizations and decision-making roles in policy deliberations and innovations. This paper explores how a science-based RPS encourages participation from diverse actors to inform PHS policy innovation in Veracruz, Mexico. We present results from two RPS workshops which engaged 69 stakeholders in negotiations on the future design of a hypothetical PHS program. Our RPS integrated qualitative and quantitative information from operating PHS programs to inform a hypothetical, but realistic, decision-making scenario. This paper analyzes data collected from surveys of workshop participants, audio recordings of workshop discussions, and post-workshop, in-depth interviews. We found the RPS fostered collaborative decision-making by engaging participants in constructive conversations about PHS program design options to effectively contribute to forest conservation and socioeconomic well-being, including incentivizing environmentally friendly farm practices and complementing cash payment with in-kind transactions. We also found the collaborative method of RPS challenged the exclusive role of technical expertise in decision-making by eliciting ideas for improvement of PHS programs and fostering understanding and empathy towards others and their interests, particularly for small landowners who do not typically participate in decision-making. We conclude that a science-based RPS can be a valuable tool for encouraging multi-stakeholder participation in policy design that reflects local environmental and socio-economic values and needs. • Role-play simulation (RPS) is a method to engage stakeholders in policy deliberations and innovation. • RPS promotes critical thinking about the design and approach of PHS policy. • RPS can potentially inform PHS policies. • RPS negotiations can contribute to mutual understanding between different stakeholders. • RPS negotiations can be a valuable tool for encouraging multi-stakeholder participation in generating policy options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facing a dramatic depletion of forests in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, throughout the last decades of colonial rule (between the mid-eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) the Bourbon administration wrote and published a considerable number of laws, reports, surveys, and ordinances on forest management and conservation. In this paper we examine discourses of forest conservation and the measures applied to preserve this critical resource by colonial official and experts. Drawing on forest laws, ordinances, and reports from national archives in Mexico City, we argue that conservation became part of the concepts which defined how forests were conceptualized and managed, but also that conservation was intrinsic to colonial processes of state-making and territorialization. This paper aims to approach Bourbon officials' understanding of conservation as a complex interrelation between renewed discourses of nature and the practices of colonial forest administration through the idea of indeterminacy. Likewise, it sheds light on patterns that have defined the ways in which forest conservation has been constituted in modern Mexico, addressing a little-studied period in forest management in this country. • Forest conservation was contentious questioning the universality of colonial laws. • Conservation became a site of experimentation to know, govern, and produce forests. • Conservation provides insights into the colonial state's territorial actualization. • Colonial forest laws played an important role in defining the context of depletion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Connectivity is a landscape property that promotes gene flow between organisms located in different patches of habitat and provides a way to reduce habitat loss by maintaining flux of organisms through the landscape; it is an important factor for conservation decisions. In this study, we evaluated the structural and functional connectivity among 510 oak forest remnants in a basin in central Mexico by modeling the potential distribution of seven oak species that inhabit in it. The structural and functional connectivity of oak forest remnants was estimated by graph theory. Distribution models for all the oak species had a good level of predictability, showing that 53.16% of the basin is suitable for oaks. The importance for connectivity varied between the remnant forests. Large forest fragments had the highest values of connectivity, and small forest fragments acted as steppingstones favoring the movement of organisms among fragments. In the southern region of the basin, connected remnant forests had conformed to a large network, but in the northern region, the remnant forests were mostly isolated. Conservation of oak forests in this basin requires protection for remaining patches by preserving both large and small ones and restoring biological corridors to reduce the isolation of forest fragments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the middle of the last century, the Mexican government applied a forest administration policy based on state control through concessions to parastatal enterprises. In the 1980s, communities began to regain control of their forests and promote community forestry, with Ixtlán playing a leading role. This study compared three forest management plans (FMPs) that have been implemented in the community of Ixtlán de Juárez, in southern Mexico, and their contributions to the productivity and conservation of forest resources. The information was obtained from three FMPs, considering the silvicultural regimes, the original stand or sub-stand structure, and the species that promoted cutting regeneration. These FMPs represent different management periods; the forest inventory of the first FMP indicates the condition of the forest originated under state control, while the two subsequent ones evaluate the condition of the forest under community forestry. Sub-stand variables of the three FMPs were compared using the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test. The results indicated that, in the first FMP, the sub-stands were of old growth, and intensive thinning was applied. In the two subsequent plans, alternate strip clearcutting and single-tree selection were implemented. It was shown that, with increased management intensity in the sub-stands, better characteristics were obtained in terms of increment in basal area and volume variables, promoting regeneration and establishment of Pinus and displacing dominance of Quercus genus, without affecting forest richness and diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2007 many developing countries have laid groundwork for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and sustainable management and conservation of forests (REDD +) under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). REDD + is aimed at incentivizing forest conservation and management in developing countries through policy programmers and local projects, which should in theory enhance the participation of very diverse actors in forest policy and governance. Here we explore the early years of REDD + in Mexico focusing on the alleged "participatory" nature of the REDD + initiative. Based on interviews and field observations with those involved in drafting the REDD + national strategy and in the implementation of small-scale pilot project activities, we investigate the meaning of participation for REDD + actors, their aspirations in this regard, and how procedural justice issues are being considered in early policy implementation. We demonstrate that the process set in motion to draft the strategy did not sufficiently involve sub-national governance levels, thus reducing the legitimacy of REDD + efforts, particularly in rural communities. We suggest that rural local actors should be further involved in REDD + decision-making forums, be provided with more information for a good understanding of REDD + implementation (e.g., pilot projects), and most importantly, be given a real chance to implement REDD + activities grounded on their own institutions and land-use practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Tecnología y Ciencias del Agua is the property of Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologia del Agua (IMTA) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The search for mechanisms to mitigate global warming has generated a series of proposals to reduce deforestation and promote conservation of forests as carbon stocks through financial or in-kind support. However, the economic implications of including carbon sequestration in forest for timber production have not been dealt with in depth, and the conditions in which combined production might be a profitable option to forest owners, particularly in Mexico, are unknown. The aim of this study was to quantify carbon sequestration in a central region of Mexico and evaluate the profitability of selling carbon credits as well as timber products. Data and information used comes from three inventories (2013, 2014 and 2016) taken in 160 permanent sampling plots of 400 m² each; forest management costs per hectare were obtained through interviews to the landowners, and the profitability was assessed using the economic indicators Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Return Rate (IRR), Benefit- Cost Ratio (BCR), and Land Expected Value (LEV). The results indicate that, in areas of low productivity, carbon sequestration is profitable only at a low discount rate (3.5%) and a high price of the ton CO2e (USD 100 ha-1 year-1). However, under combined production, the optimal rotation periods are longer, depending on the discount rate and price of sequestered carbon. Therefore, timber production will continue to be the main economic activity, until the rules of operation of the different mechanisms created for carbon sequestration become more flexible and the carbon markets offer more attractive incentives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Textual is the property of Universidad Autonoma Chapingo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Yellow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix) is considered globally endangered due to intense poaching pressure and extensive tropical forest loss. We examined the relationships among nesting pair density, survey area, tropical forest type, and forest conservation conditions to estimate the potential population size in central-western Mexico. The surveyed areas constitute a representative sample of forest types, property ownership, and land use in the region. We estimated the overall surveyed area and the nesting pairs in general and by each forest type. Data were analyzed in multiple and single linear regression models. We used a high-resolution vegetation model to measure the extent of each forest type and land use in the area with suitable climatic conditions for nesting. We recorded 111 nesting events in 77 distinct nest trees during the 2002–2013 study period in an area of 185.3 km2. Overall nesting density was 0.59 ± 0.28 pairs per km2. Individual areas surveyed showed a broad variation in nest densities (0.14–1.5 per km2). Primary tropical semi-deciduous forest held 64% of the nesting pairs and the highest nesting density (1.98 ± 0.82 per km2). Tropical dry deciduous forest contained 11% of nesting pairs and 0.20 ± 0.19 pairs per km2. Single linear regression models by forest type performed better and are more practical for abundance calculations than multiple regression models. We estimate the size of the nesting population in the region at 701 pairs (95% CI: 526–876), which corresponds to about 1,399–2,330 parrots, using the mature/immature ratio used by the IUCN. The results suggest that central-western Mexico may hold about 27% of the species' global population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical forest disturbance contributes to global climate change from increased carbon emissions, and causes loss of biodiversity. Thus, identifying its direct causes and underlying drivers are necessary for effective land use, climate change control and conservation strategies. We integrated remote sensing forest cover data from 2000 to 2018 with georeferenced national socioeconomic and field‐collected household data to determine underlying drivers behind forest cover transitions (e.g., deforestation, degradation, and recovery) in the Selva Maya ('Mayan Forest') of southeast Mexico. Spatial and statistical models (multinomial logistic regression, log‐linear regression, and analysis of variance) and social science methods (household surveys and qualitative comparative analysis) were applied to evaluate and identify socioeconomic, institutional, and environmental drivers intervening at landscape and community scales. Forest cover transitions varied geographically, and associated drivers differed by scale of analysis. Using multiple methods improved the understanding of drivers. Population growth, poverty, and roads are major drivers influencing forest cover transitions (e.g., deforestation, degradation, and recovery) in the landscape. Community scale analysis identified more drivers and offered greater detail of causal relationships. Besides population and poverty, less off‐farm employment, agriculture and cattle production, immigrant population, and private property were related to deforestation and degradation. Indigenous populations, forest dependence, off‐farm employment, and common property were associated with forest conservation. Sustainable rural development should include poverty alleviation through diversification of economic activities and increased off‐farm employment opportunities. Conservation measures should pursue the enhancement of forest value for local subsistence and economic benefits by strengthening community forest management and enterprises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how Maya farmers in Mexico respond to agri-environmental subsidies aimed at promoting sustainable land use decisions. We do so through a serious games approach, using a tailor-designed board game to identify the land use behaviors of Maya farmers. The game simulated three different subsidy programs promoting mechanized agriculture, forest conservation, and agroforestry. We find that farmers tend to clear forested areas in response to agroforestry subsidies. Also, we observe that land use decisions are path-dependent, with farmers adhering to traditional and mechanized agriculture and hesitant to engage in conservation and agroforestry. These findings highlight the potential of serious games as a tool to improve understandings of how farmers make land use decisions and the resulting land use change patterns. Specifically, our findings show that serious games are well suited to understand how path dependency in decision-making can influence the effect of subsidies – and whether subsidies thereby achieve the intended goals, such as reduced deforestation. • Unlike traditional agriculture, mechanized agriculture causes rapid deforestation. • Agroforestry replaces forests and is not implemented on existing agricultural land. • Removing subsidies can result in abandonment of the land uses they target. • Sunk costs drive land use path dependency and explain farmers' behavior. • Serious games can provide an effective tool to unravel complex land use behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designing successful strategies for forest conservation requires an understanding of the causes of land-use change. A historical analysis of land-use changes in two ejidos of the Lacandon Jungle in Chiapas, México was conducted in this study. Participatory mapping and remote sensing methods were combined to reconstruct the changes that occurred from 1986 to 2018. Participatory workshops and semi-structured interviews were also conducted. We identified three stages in the history of land-use change: a) colonization and adaptation (1986-1994); b) intervention on productive activities (1994-2005); and c) livestock expansion and forest conservation (2005-2018). In each of these, the economic and political factors causing change contributed in different ways and were mediated at the local level by the specific organization in each ejido. There was a sharp decrease in areas dedicated to staple food production in favour of livestock farming. Even though public resources have been allocated in the last stage to promote forest conservation, the built infrastructure, the weak institutional presence, and the strong specialization in cattle production hinder efforts to stop deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forestry systems in Mexico are examples of traditional management of land and biodiversity that integrates the use, conservation and restoration of forest elements. Current in situ management practices of Agave maximiliana in western Mexico include the tolerance of many forest elements, reintroduction of young Agave plants and germination of seeds. More intense forms of management include monocultures, which are agroindustrialized systems developed in more recent times and characterized by the establishment of high densities of A. maximiliana plants in deforested areas and abandoned agricultural lands. We compared monocultures, forestry systems and wild populations (i.e., non/slightly-exploited forests) in order to evaluate whether these practices have had an effect on intraspecific morphological and genetic variation and divergence. We also tested whether divergence has a positive relationship with environmental and geographic distance. We analyzed 16 phenotypic traits in 17 populations of A. maximiliana , and 14 populations were further examined by amplifying 9 SSR loci. We employed multivariate methods and analyses of variance in phenotypic and genetic traits to test whether clusters and the percentage of variation contained in the managed and wild categories can be identified. Tests of isolation by environment (IBE) and distance (IBD) were performed to detect the magnitude of divergence explained by climatic and geographic variables. We found that forestry systems are effective as reservoirs of morphological and genetic diversity, since they maintain levels similar to those of wild populations. Moreover, the monocultures showed similar levels, reflecting their recent emergence. While the species showed high morphological diversity (IMD = 0.638, SE ± 0.07), it had low to intermediate genetic diversity (A = 2.37, H E = 0.418). Similar morphological and genetic divergences were found among populations, but these were not correlated with each other in population pairs. Non-significant morphological differentiation was found among categories. Only IBE was significant in the genetic structure (β = 0.32, p = 0.007), while neither IBE nor IBD was detected in the morphological differentiation. We discuss the implications of these results in the context of the weaknesses and strengths of A. maximiliana in the face of the socio-ecological changes predicted for the study area in the short term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor communities living in rural areas have complicated and essential relationships to the environment in which they live. Such communities often live in degraded ecosystems where natural disasters and climate change incur systematic and largescale damage to communities. Income earning potential most often comes from agriculture and from ecosystem services, which are gathered or farmed products such as timber, clean water, plant material, and wildlife that are farmed and sold. Driven by survival needs or poor government management, these activities are often practiced using unsustainable methods that cause further harm to degraded landscapes. To combat this phenomenon, and to tackle the exceptionally large goals of improving economic livelihood for rural poor communities while conserving diverse ecosystems, several largescale policy programs have been implemented in multiple developing nations around the world. Most of these programs including components of payment for ecosystem service models (PES), which compensate communities in various ways for harvesting and selling forest products such as timber, water, and wildlife. This paper reviews four such programs: RFFP in China, a wetlands payment for ecosystem services structure in Rwanda, CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe, and REDD+ in Mexico. It identifies pros and cons of each and begins to make broad recommendations about efficacy of such programs. Recommendations center around ensuring effective land use policy, utilizing communitybased program management, promoting land ownership at a community level, and a balancing of forest conservation and economic activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Estudios Demográficos y Urbanos is the property of El Colegio de Mexico AC and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Textual is the property of Universidad Autonoma Chapingo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Indigenous community land tenure in many locations worldwide is shifting towards individually parcelized and privatized systems. Among the drivers of this shifting land tenure are distant political‐economic forces and commodity markets, from local to global. Accompanying the observed land tenure changes are shifts in livelihoods, away from subsistence‐based and toward market‐oriented activities. These changes can ultimately impact land use, land cover, and biodiversity conservation. We investigated a global‐to‐local causal pathway, from agriculture, livestock, and forestry production for distant markets, extending through shifting land tenure and livelihoods, to impacts on forest cover within ejidos (a type of community landholding) across Yucatán, México, where Maya people are the primary land managers. To reveal this causal pathway, we conducted exploratory data analysis, using ordinary least squares regression, mapped variables, and variographic analyses to assess spatial patterns and correlations. We further explored relationships among variables using spatially explicit simultaneous autoregressive models. We found that commodity production for distant markets is strongly related to parcelized ejido lands, which in turn are often deforested. Conversely, community‐managed lands, which traditionally involve subsistence‐based agroforestry, are much more likely to be densely forested. Overall, we conclude that recent deforestation of ejido lands across the State is, at least partly, the result of shifting land tenure and livelihoods due to the increasing presence of commodity markets. Moreover, we conclude that community‐managed lands and associated subsistence livelihoods can attenuate deforestation and potentially advance forest and biodiversity conservation across México and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon-based payments for ecosystem services solely consider afforestation and reforestation to assess sequestration. However, political ecology researchers demonstrate that tropical forests are complex socioecological systems where humans and institutions play an integral role in shaping landscapes. The current framing overlooks the net effect of traditional subsistence agriculturalists leaving behind low emission lifestyles, despite the likelihood of a significant increase in per capita emissions over time. In this case study, we use the history of forest use in the Pueblos Mancomunados—a commonwealth of indigenous communities in Oaxaca, Mexico—to explore sequestration through a socioecological systems lens. As negative emissions programs consider afforestation, we triangulated semistructured interviews, an unsupervised GIS classification of land cover, and a review of carbon dioxide emissions to consider out-migration, abandonment, and lifestyle change. We find that communities are struggling to maintain livelihoods as migration to urban centers and the United States continues. Meanwhile, spatial analysis revealed 800 ha of afforestation. Our analysis of out-migration scenarios and per capita emissions changes identified a tipping point in which no net-sequestration would occur from afforestation due to the changing lifestyles of the migrants and recommend improved local development to avoid this form of "leakage" when assessing global carbon stocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mayan community forest reserves (MCFR) play an important role in agricultural landscapes in Mexico, as they provide forest products and a broad variety of benefits that contribute to improving local people's livelihoods. Nevertheless, academia has generally considered conservation and use of forest resources to be incompatible. We describe the spatial configuration of MCFR, evaluate floristic and structural characteristics of woody vegetation present in selected reserves, and identify social norms that govern use and conservation of MCFR. These reserves largely consist of mature vegetation (80% of total cover); their plant structure is similar to that of the surrounding tropical sub-deciduous forest; and they house a large number of endemic species. The MCFR studied contain a total of 146 tree species and cover 11% of the study area, which includes at least 140 villages in the north-central part of the Yucatan Peninsula. These reserves are collectively managed and conserved by Mayan peasants in the interest of the common good. The communities in our study area combine conservation and use of forest resources, and we recommend that in public policy, government agencies and NGOs incorporate MCFR as a model of biological conservation and sustainable natural resource use, taking into account traditional knowledge and local norms that allow these reserves to function in a sustainable manner. • Mayan people manage local forest reserves under the principle of the common good. • Forest reserves sustain high number of species richness respecting mature forests. • They provide forest products, as well as a broad variety of environmental services. • Community forest reserves constitute network of biological connectivity. • Community forest reserves represent a model of biological conservation and sustainable use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A quasi-experimental approach is used to test the effect of building capacities on communities. • Capacity building has a statistically positive effect on reducing poverty. • Building human/social capacities is more effective than providing economic capacities. • Capacity building has no effect on forest conservation in communities managing their forests. Community Forestry has been identified as a secure, profitable, and equitable strategy to reach the dual goal of forest conservation and poverty alleviation. This research contributes to the literature exploring the effects of local capacity building in forest communities by analyzing the Community Forestry Program (CFP) in Mexico. This program provides grants to enhance four types of local capacities: human, social, economic, and environmental. We used a quasi-experimental approach to quantitatively compare matched treatment and control communities regarding the effect of these interventions on two response variables: poverty alleviation and forest cover conservation. The treatment and control communities were assessed at two points in time: pre-intervention and after a 5-year treatment period. This approach was possible because we had access to a rich database of CFP grants containing more than 20,000 records from which we identify 5074 that meet the criteria for our study. Impact on poverty is assessed using a Marginality Index produced by a federal agency. Effect on forest cover conservation is evaluated by using two proxies, the rate of change on: forest cover and on forest cover fragmentation. Our results show that enhancement of only human/social capacities or all capacities as a package significantly reduce poverty. However, the first ones have a greater impact that the latter ones. Neither human/social capacities enhancement, nor all-capacities enhancement had a statistically significant effect on forest cover conservation. These findings can assist in better designing and targeting future CFP grants in Mexico. Also, they have implications for public policy since capacity building is cheaper than any other poverty alleviation mechanism such as direct cash transfers or subsidies. Furthermore, they have long-lasting impacts that do not require regular periodical contributions and they don't discriminate by gender, or by the requirement on individual community members of having land ownership rights within the community's land holdings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Forest cover on a landscape scale enhanced local insect diversity. • The size of effect differs among landscape scales. • Forest cover drives insects guilds differently. • Species turnover contributed most to β-diversity. Tropical dry forests are among the most threatened tropical ecosystems. Human-modifications to landscapes create forest patches that vary in size and shape, which in turn affects regional insect diversity. We evaluated β-diversity of insect herbivores and the effects that forest cover has on guild richness and abundance at five landscape scales (radii). We assessed insect herbivore communities in 48 plots of four dry forest sites—three in Brazil and one in Mexico—ranging in latitude from 19° south to 19° north. We collected 2893 insects representing 438 morphospecies, of which 113 were leaf-chewing, 225 sap-sucking and 100 xylophagous. β-diversity was higher in the site with the most unpredictable weather, and species turnover contributed most to β-diversity at all dry forest sites. Forest cover on a landscape scale enhanced local species richness and abundance of insects per day. Nevertheless, leaf-chewing richness was only associated with the smallest landscape scale (0.25 km radius), while sap-sucking and xylophagous insect richness and abundance were positively affected by forest cover at all spatial scales, with a higher explanatory power between scales of 1–1.5 km, which reflects potential dispersal distances. The high degree of species replacement (turnover) among plots of dry forest sites and the biological relevance of forest cover to herbivores suggest that maintaining forest areas in the surrounding landscape will contribute to dry forest insect diversity and the maintenance of their ecological services. Variation in landscape scale requirements among guilds indicates that managing landscape features is as important for the preservation of dry forest diversity as is conserving a particular forest fragment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The impact of different types of land tenure in areas with high biodiversity and threats of deforestation remains poorly understood. We apply rigorous quasi-experimental methods and detailed geospatial data to assess the role of tenure regimes—communally held lands (specifically, ejidos), private property, and their impact on the effectiveness of protected areas, in reducing forest loss in a biodiversity hotspot- the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico. We find evidence that, while protected areas are effective on average, their impact depends on the underlying type of tenure regime and forest, proxied by biomass levels and biome. Protecting communally held land may reduce deforestation, specifically the loss of medium- and high-biomass forests, compared to forests under private property regimes. Our results have important policy implications for the conservation and climate change mitigation efforts on the Yucatan. However, the high variance in forest loss rates among ejidos indicates that other characteristics of ejidos may be central to understanding community-based forest conservation opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species recovery after forest disturbance is a highly studied topic in the tropics, but considerable debate remains on the role of secondary forests as biodiversity repositories, especially regarding the functional and phylogenetic dimensions of biodiversity. Also, studies generally overlook how alpha and beta diversities interact to produce gamma diversity along successional gradients.We used a metacommunity approach to assess how species sorting (i.e., environmental filtering) and mass effect (i.e., source‐sink dynamics) affect 14 complementary metrics of amphibian taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity along a successional gradient in southern Mexico. As amphibians have narrow environmental tolerances and low dispersal capabilities, we expected that species sorting may be relatively more important than mass effect in structuring amphibian communities.Between 2010 and 2012, we sampled frogs, salamanders, and caecilians in 23 communities distributed in four successional stages: young (2–5 years old) and intermediate (13–28 years old) secondary forests, old‐growth forest fragments, and old‐growth continuous forest. We assessed 15 ecologically relevant functional traits per species and used a time‐calibrated molecular phylogeny.We recorded 1,672 individuals belonging to 30 species and 11 families. Supporting our expectations from the species sorting perspective, from the poorest (younger forests) to the best quality (continuous forest) scenarios, we observed (a) an increase in alpha diversity regardless of species abundances; (b) a clear taxonomic segregation across successional stages; (c) an increase in functional richness and dispersion; (d) an increase in mean phylogenetic distance and nearest taxon index; and (e) a reduction in mean nearest taxon distance. However, 10 species occurred in all successional stages, resulting in relatively low beta diversity. This supports a mass effect, where interpatch migrations contribute to prevent local extinctions and increase compositional similarity at the regional scale.Our findings indicate that amphibian metacommunities along forest successional gradients are mainly structured by species sorting, but mass effects may also play a role if high levels of forest cover are conserved in the region. In fact, secondary forests and forest fragments can potentially safeguard different aspects of amphibian diversity, but their long‐term conservation value requires preventing additional deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Mexico, State Natural Protected Areas are frequently undervalued and rarely studied. The objective of this work was to analyze the process of decree and governance features of Chicamole Ecological Preservation Zone, which protects a cloud forest. An actor map was generated to understand the organization scheme, the external sector involved and their relationships. Semi structured Interviews were conducted both with governmental institutions and local inhabitants to analyze the decree. In spite of the obtained differences in perception, it can be noted that major conservation resulted from legislation. In addition, the presence of well-defined community norms regarding the use of natural resources (especially firewood and water) has encouraged forest conservation. This study shows the importance of a small area in the context of the protected areas in Mexico. The challenges of Chicamole Ecological Preservation Zone include increasing the interaction between sectors, achieving local recognition of the protected zone, and strengthening the social organization and the sustainable use of natural resources through stakeholder inclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this policy review, we analyze two payments for hydrological services matching programs operating in the Antigua water basin in the state of Veracruz, Mexico. Mexico's Matching Program was created to transition from the national payments for hydrological services program to programs that would be financed by local governments, local water users and the private sector. Based on the analysis of organizational documents and key informant interviews with institutional actors, we describe the distinctive origins and organizational structures of these two programs, and how these differences have led to unique challenges for each program. We conclude that payments for ecosystem services programs that incorporate community-level organization and extensive technical assistance, along with expanded direct payments from ecosystem service users, have the greatest potential for achieving long-term sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We compare shade coffee management before and after coffee leaf rust (CLR) outbreak. • Before CLR, Arabica coffee was grown in agroforests without agrochemical use. • After CLR, farmers adopted hybrid coffee varieties (HCV) resistant to CLR. • Farmers' certification status is uncertain due to agrochemical use to combat CLR. • CLR, as an environmental shock, triggered an agro-technological response fostered by external agents. Abstract Coffee agroforestry systems are a promising approach to the challenge of sustaining both biodiversity and livelihoods in tropical landscapes. However, coffee farmers' response to the unrelenting coffee leaf rust (CLR) outbreak may have repercussions for the potential of coffee agroforestry systems to contribute to biodiversity conservation. Adaptations in management practices could affect the extent to which farmers rely on ecological processes vs. external inputs (e.g., agrochemicals) to support production. This study investigates farmers' response to CLR outbreak through a study in a forest frontier in a Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas, Mexico. We conducted household surveys and fieldwork before the CLR outbreak in 2011-2012 (n = 59), and follow-up surveys after the outbreak in 2016 (n = 48). Before CLR outbreak, farmers were cultivating Arabica coffee varieties in agroforestry systems and generally following agroecological approaches. Most farmers (82%) were certified organic and did not employ synthetic agrochemicals. Farmers (66%) had plans to expand their Arabica coffee agroforests either into forest (35%) or fallow (31%) in response to high farm gate prices. After CLR outbreak, 94% of farmers had CLR-resistant hybrid coffee varieties (HCV) in their possession and were either incorporating them by substituting affected Arabica coffee plants in existing fields, or by establishing new coffee fields with HCV at lower elevations. In attempts to control CLR, farmers (54%) also applied agrochemicals at least once and, to a lesser extent (19%), removed shade trees. Among the farmers (63%) who were planning on expanding coffee production with HCV, more farmers were planning on expanding on fallow (46%) than forest (17%) compared to the period before CLR outbreak (p-value < 0.05). Public and private actors promoted and distributed saplings of HCV and agrochemicals along with technical assistance. The promotion of HCV along with fertilizers may result in a substitution of ecosystem functions with agrochemicals, and the need to acquire seeds and saplings outside of farmers' own resource base and networks. This shift in management strategies generates new instabilities and risks by introducing a new market for HCV about which little is known and by making external agents the holders of productive resources and knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Payment for environmental services (PES) is a scheme that seeks to reduce human pressure on forest ecosystems by financially rewarding forest landowners for conserving their forests. However, in Mexico, the program is questioned because it prioritizes communities in the poorest regions over areas with a high risk of deforestation. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the PES program for forest cover conservation and poverty alleviation in a tropical region of Mexico. Deforestation and forest cover maintenance was determined by land use/cover change analysis using GIS. Effect on poverty alleviation was analyzed qualitatively in two communities. In the study area, 4738 ha of tropical and temperate forests were deforested during 2007–2017. The deforestation rate is similar in ejidos and private properties with and without PES. Most ejidos where deforestation occurred correspond to areas with higher economic development. Deforestation and the percentage of the population living in poverty are negatively correlated. Compared to other subsidies, the PES represents very low income, nevertheless, the social perception of the program is positive. Based on the lower percentage of deforestation avoided in the poorest areas and the minimal impact on livelihoods, the current PES approach is not highly effective. • The annual deforestation rate is similar for beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries in communal and private properties. • Even with the payment, lands enrolled in the program lost forest cover. • Most areas where deforestation occurred corresponded to areas with higher economic development. • The payment had no impact on poverty alleviation, however, the social perception was positive. • Current PES approach is not considered to be effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effectiveness of protected areas at achieving nature conservation goals varies widely, but the reasons for this variation are understudied. We argue that an important, but often neglected, factor is the history of institutional development that pre-dates protected area establishment. Through a comparative analysis of pathways of institutional development in Calakmul and Maya Biosphere Reserves, internationally adjoining protected areas in Mexico and Guatemala, we demonstrate that differences in farmer and community-level conservation behavior between the two reserves are the result of differences in land tenure systems that pre-date reserve establishment. Differences in land tenure systems resulted in a lower population density, greater tenure security, and greater economic and political equality in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. All of these factors influenced farmers and communities in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve to have more favorable attitudes towards conservation, conserve more forest on both individual and community managed land, and to create more conservation reserves on both land types. These differences are rooted in the system of land distribution and political organization during the 1970s and 1980s, before protected area establishment, when both areas were agricultural frontiers. As a result of these political processes that pre-date reserve creation, farmers and communities in Calakmul hold more land and hold it more equitably, have less access to surplus labor for expanding commercial production, and have a political system that shares benefits from forest conservation more equitably when compared to Maya. Our work highlights the value of understanding historical political and institutional conditions in the design and development of effective protected areas. Protected areas located in areas with greater economic and political equality may be more effective at conserving nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study seeks to understand children's perceptions and knowledge of endangered Mexican primates. The black howler monkey ( Alouatta pigra) is a charismatic species endemic to Southern Mexico, Northern Belize, and Guatemala and is a symbol of the region that fosters a sense of local pride. Therefore, it can be considered a flagship species for the forests of Southern Mexico. We evaluated the perception and knowledge that 297 Mexican elementary school children (8-10 years old) have about black howler monkeys. Specifically, we analyzed and categorized drawings made by these children based on gender, geographic context (rural or urban), and residence within or outside of Protected Areas (PAs). Student drawings were categorized into three levels of knowledge (no familiarity, basic knowledge, and sophisticated knowledge). Common misconceptions and important landscape elements for black howler conservation were gathered from these visual representations. Children were largely unfamiliar with black howlers, despite sharing the same geographical location. Knowledge was affected by context and residence, with students living within PAs more aware of black howlers than students living outside of PAs. However, overall the children showed a deep understanding of the current forest conservation situation in Southern Mexico; meaning they could be presenting a shifting baseline syndrome. The study highlights the value of assessing children's drawings as a tool that can be used to help policy makers and educational practitioners in fine-tuning educational, environmental, and marketing programs. More importantly, it is a methodology that can be applied in future research for understanding children's perceptions and knowledge about endangered species and environmental change in deciding how to improve the effectiveness of conservation messaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying forest ecosystems with significant ecological, social, and/or economic values is an important first-step in conserving landscape function. Here, we identify priority conservation areas in the municipalities of Chignahuapan and Zacatlan, Puebla (Mexico), based on: (i) their capacity to sequester atmospheric CO2; and (ii) risk of future deforestation. We also explore management strategies for priority-lands conservation in the Mexican context. Aboveground C sequestration was estimated using wood density and biomass expansion-factor data available from local forestry sources. Deforestation risk was estimated by a probabilistic model of land use change using socioeconomic and biophysical variables. Carbon sequestration estimates ranged from 14 to 531 Mg ha-1 for Chignahuapan and Zacatlan, respectively. An estimated 11,746 and 4,406 ha of forest was determined to be at risk of deforestation in each municipality. Of these at-risk lands, 2,421 and 1,798 ha were determined to be at high risk. In combination, we determined that 10,687 and 4,319 ha, respectively, are priority lands for carbon sequestration in Chignahuapan and Zacatlan, of which 628 and 310 ha were determined to have high conservation priority. Identifying priority conservation areas through the integrated assessment of carbon sequestration and deforestation risk can enhance efforts to target land management strategies to mitigate climate change impacts. This approach can serve as a model for other forested regions in Mexico and other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies have considered community-based forestry enterprises to be the best option for development of rural Mexican communities with forests. While some of Mexico's rural communities with forests receive significant economic and social benefits from having a community forestry enterprise, the majority have not formed such enterprises. The purpose of this article is to identify and describe factors limiting the formation of community forestry enterprise in rural communities with temperate forests in the Southern Mixteca region of Oaxaca, Mexico. The study involved fieldwork, surveys applied to Community Board members, and maps developed from satellite images in order to calculate the forested surface area. It was found that the majority of Southern Mixteca communities lack the natural and social conditions necessary for developing community forestry enterprise; in this region, commercial forestry is limited due to insufficient precipitation, scarcity of land or timber species, community members' wariness of commercial timber extraction projects, ineffective local governance, lack of capital, and certain cultural beliefs. Only three of the 25 communities surveyed have a community forestry enterprise; however, several communities have developed other ways of profiting from their forests, including pine resin extraction, payment for environmental services (PES), sale of spring water, and ecotourism. We conclude that community forestry enterprise are not the only option for rural communities to generate income from their forests; in recent years a variety of forest-related economic opportunities have arisen which are less demanding of communities' physical and social resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the features, perspectives and challenges that define the forest regulation and its problems in Mexico. It is part of the evolution of forest regulation in our country, to analyze the elements and definitions that have influenced the regulation and legal practice in forest. Although already have implemented legislation the different elements that make up a new model of forest regulation oriented towards sustainable forest development, it is concluded that control mechanisms and effective enforcement of the legislation; it takes in not establishing clearly the objectives of each of the forest functions, which generates in legal practice, a contradiction between production and conservation of forest resources policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For protected areas (PAs), variation in forest impacts over space--including types of PA--are increasingly well documented, while shifts in impacts over time receive less attention. For Mexico, in the 1990s, PAs effectively were 'paper parks'. Thus, achieving impacts on the forest would require shifts over time in the politics of PA siting and PA implementation. We rigorously analyze the impacts of Mexican PAs on 2000-2005 loss of natural land cover, using matching to reduce location bias caused by typical land-use economics and politics. We find a 3.2% lower loss, on average, due to PAs. Since politics often vary by type of PA, we also show that in Mexico stricter PAs are closer to cities and have greater impact than mixed-use PAs. These shifts in impacts suggest some potential for PAs to conserve forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) have been promoted worldwide as a means to incentivise biodiversity, forest conservation and sustainable forest management. Mexico has been at the forefront of PES implementation since 2003, and the country has now more than 2.6 million hectares under a variety of PES contracts. In this article, we perform a choice experiment with a group of 82 community forest owners who are receiving a payment for providing biodiversity-related ecosystem services in the state of Chiapas. Considering possible future evolutions in contract design, we explore individuals preferences over contract characteristics including who is involved in deciding the parcels to be included in the contract, the type of technical intermediary, the level of payment and the type of incentive (either in individual cash payments or in collective investments). Our results show a reluctance to decide collectively on issues related to forest conservation, as well as on dedicating a share of payments to collective projects. We find strong individual preferences for payments in cash, even when the amount of monetary compensation is lower than in the existing PES contract, and we show that most participants value positively the help received by external service providers in PES implementation. An analysis of preference heterogeneity suggests that community leaders play a key role in moderating individual preferences and enhancing participation structured around working groups. We thus argue that the willingness to accept a PES program is greatly dependent on local governance factors. As such, exploring ways for PES contractual options to match the diversity of local conditions and individual preferences – allowing a modular allocation of PES into cash or investment on an individual or collective basis- could further stimulate participation in Mexico’s PES programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temperate forest ecosystems harbor great biodiversity and provide key ecosystem services. However, in Mexico they have been deforested for use in avocado orchards, which represents a major threat to ecosystems functioning and the conservation of biodiversity. We evaluated the changes in soil chemical properties in a fragmented landscape of avocado agrosystems and forests in Mexico and the effects on plant quantity and quality (leaf area, canopy cover, DBH and chlorophyll content), leaf morphology, herbivory and fluctuating asymmetry in Quercus castanea and Q. obtusata. Eight study sites were selected: i) areas with a more proportion of forest and less of avocado orchards, ii) areas with equal proportion of both forest and orchards, iii) areas with more proportion of orchards. In all sites, 15 adult trees at the edge and 15 trees in the interior of each fragment were selected for each oak species. Soil samples were also collected in all study sites to analyze their chemical properties. We found higher concentration of Mg2+, NO 3 − and SO 4 2− in soils of sites with more proportion of orchards. Total leaf area, canopy cover and DBH, as well the herbivory and FA levels were higher in these sites and in the edges of fragments for both oak species. Chlorophyll content was higher at forest edges than in the interior of fragments for all sites analyzed. Leaves of both oak species were more elongated and wider in sites with more proportion of orchards, as well in forest edges. Plant traits, herbivory and FA were related to chemical soil properties according to the proportion of forest and orchards, indicating that the mechanisms driving this interaction are scale-dependent and vary among habitat types according to proportion of forest. Herbivory was positively correlated with leaf area, DBH, chlorophyll content and FA for both oak species, indicating that herbivory increase as resource availability and quality increased along mosaic of avocado agrosystems. Our results showed that land use change of forest to avocado orchards, creates fragments with intense edge effects changing chemical soil properties, which in turn affect quantity and quality of resources to insect herbivores, as well as leaf morphology and FA levels of Q. castanea and Q. obtusata individuals. Our study is the first to denote the importance of the maintenance and conservation of temperate forest ecosystems and their potential functional and ecological benefits to avocado cultivation. [Display omitted] • The conversion of forests to agrosystems is one of the main threats to biodiversity. • We analyzed the soil properties, plant quantity and quality, leaf morphology, herbivory and FA in avocado agrosystems. • Avocado agrosystems changes soil properties affecting quantity and quality of resources and the incidence of herbivorous. • Agrosystems homogenize the landscape generating forest fragments interspersed with crops. • FA is a reliable biomarker to detect environmental stress in oak species in fragmented habitats and by herbivory damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed production, quality, germination and seedling establishment are indicators of reproductive success in conifers. Monitoring of these parameters is essential to determine the viability of populations for the purposes of conservation. We analyze cone and seed traits as indicators of reproductive success in the endangered Rzedowski's pine (Pinus rzedowskii (Madrigal et Caballero) and near-threatened veitchii pine (Pinus ayacahuite var. veitchii (Shaw)) in west-central Michoacán, Mexico. These traits were systematically quantified and their variation assessed using Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs). We found that the reproductive success of Rzedowski's pine seems to be critical, presenting low seed efficiency (17.10%), germination (5.0%) and seedling establishment (27.7%), with high levels of inbreeding (0.79). In contrast, veitchii pine presents moderate seed efficiency (54.9%), high germination (71.5%) and seedling establishment (84%-97%) and low inbreeding (0.33). Reproductive indicators differed significantly among zones and populations for each species, where fragment sizes mainly affected seed production and efficiency. This result indicates that fragmentation has played a more important role in the reproductive success of Rzedowski's pine than in veitchii pine, perhaps by limiting pollen flow among zones and populations and producing higher levels of inbreeding and lower seed efficiency in the former species. We propose a conservation strategy for these important pine species in order to increase their long-term genetic viability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assuming that co-distributed species are exposed to similar environmental conditions, ecological niche models (ENMs) of bird and plant species inhabiting tropical dry forests (TDFs) in Mexico were developed to evaluate future projections of their distribution for the years 2050 and 2070. We used ENM-based predictions and climatic data for two Global Climate Models, considering two Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios (RCP4.5/RCP8.5). We also evaluated the effects of habitat loss and the importance of the Mexican system of protected areas (PAs) on the projected models for a more detailed prediction of TDFs and to identify hot spots that require conservation actions. We identified four major distributional areas: the main one located along the Pacific Coast (from Sonora to Chiapas, including the Cape and Bajío regions, and the Balsas river basin), and three isolated areas: the Yucatán peninsula, central Veracruz, and southern Tamaulipas. When considering the effect of habitat loss, a significant reduction (~61%) of the TDFs predicted area occurred, whereas climate-change models suggested (in comparison with the present distribution model) an increase in area of 3.0-10.0% and 3.0-9.0% for 2050 and 2070, respectively. In future scenarios, TDFs will occupy areas above its current average elevational distribution that are outside of its present geographical range. Our findings show that TDFs may persist in Mexican territory until the middle of the XXI century; however, the challenges about long-term conservation are partially addressed (only 7% unaffected within the Mexican network of PAs) with the current Mexican PAs network. Based on our ENM approach, we suggest that a combination of models of species inhabiting present TDFs and taking into account change scenarios represent an invaluable tool to create new PAs and ecological corridors, as a response to the increasing levels of habitat destruction and the effects of climate change on this ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National Parks in Mexico are home to small communities. Whereas productive activities are by definition prohibited within park limits, restoration and conservation practices are encouraged. One way to benefit the inhabitants of these parks is to promote conservation practices that can be productive at the same time. This paper describes and evaluates the practice of regular pruning of Abies religiosa (HBK) in the Cofre de Perote National Park as both a measure to prevent forest fires and a means to obtain the raw material for the manufacturing of Christmas wreaths. Under the guidance of our university research team, over a period of 3 years, local women pruned trees over a total area of 36 ha and used part of the pruning waste (2.71 %) to make the wreaths. The income generated from pruning and from sale of the wreaths contributes significantly to household expenses. We describe the collaboration between the local Women's Group, the academic team, a federal government agency and the local authorities. The study concludes that the laws regulating national parks in Mexico should specifically stress the importance of allowing productive activities compatible with conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]