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Managerial practices for farming-system intensification have received increased focus in research-and-development (R&D) initiatives. These technologies are proven to close the yield gaps in researcher-managed field trials and are recommended for farmer's adoption. However, not all farmers have the technical, financial, and social capital to adopt and benefit from these recommended technologies. Is the current level of productivity enhancement achieved by smallholder system intensification sufficient to sustain rural livelihoods? To this end, the study assessed the impacts of hybrid maize (Zea mays L.) adoption on productivity and livelihoods in the mid-hill region of Nepal. Smallholders in the study region face severe shortages of labor, improved cultivars, and inorganic fertilizers, resulting in very low yields and profitability. We find that maize hybrid adoption increased crop productivity by 109%, making the crop profitable for smallholders and enhancing the per capita food expenditure by 20%. Nevertheless, these benefits were unevenly distributed: relatively small farms (≤0.3 ha) achieved greater gains in productivity and livelihood per land unit from hybrid maize adoption, but only larger farms (>0.3 ha) enjoyed the aggregate livelihood benefits of the technology. System intensification gains economic relevance because of the severe scarcity of resources, whereas the resource scarcity itself determines the economic relevance of system intensification, presenting a paradox. Increasing market access to material inputs did not significantly alter the observed patterns. More studies are required on the relationship between farm size and the livelihood impacts of sustainable intensification to facilitate R&D targeting and ensure inclusive development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensified livestock production is considered as a promising pathway for smallholder farmers. Nevertheless, this pathway may entail prohibitive investment requirements of labour, capital or trade‐offs at farm level that preclude sustainable intensification. We used fuzzy cognitive mapping (FCM) to assess farmers' perceptions of changes in the farm household system resulting from adding livestock to their mixed farms. Farmers identified trade‐offs between the increased income and farmyard manure production versus increases in labour requirements for fodder imports. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis performed on the FCMs showed that an increase in milk market demand could have strong positive effects on livestock production and income. We conclude that FCM is a good tool to rapidly identify trade‐offs and analyse perceptions of farmers which revealed that although they consider intensification a promising strategy, the perceived deepening of labour constraints and increasing dependency on fodder import makes a concurrent (sustainable) intensification of these farm systems unlikely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is a cool-season pulse grown in winter cropping cycle in South Asia and provides a major source of nutrition for many low-income households. Lentil productivity is perceived to be sensitive to high rainfall, but few studies document spatial and temporal patterns of yield variation across climate, soil, and agronomic gradients. Using farm survey data from Nepal, this study characterizes patterns of lentil productivity and efficiency for two cropping seasons. Additional insights were derived from on-farm trials conducted over a 5-year period that assess agronomic, drainage, and cultivar interventions. To contextualize the inferences derived from farm surveys and trials, the Stempedia model was used to simulate the severity of Stemphylium blight (Stemphylium botryosum) risk–the principal fungal disease in lentil–with 30 years of historical climate data. Although development efforts in Nepal have prioritized pulse intensification, results confirm that lentil remains a risky enterprise highlighting the prevalence of crop failures (16%), modest yields (353 kg ha-1), and low levels of profitability (US$ 33 ha-1) in wet winters. Nevertheless, site factors such as drainage class influence responses with upland sites performing well in wet winters and lowland sites performing well in dry winters. In wet winters, a phenomena perceived to be increasing, 76% of surveyed farmers reported significant disease pressure and simulations with Stempedia predict that conditions favoring Stemphylium occur in >60% of all years. Nevertheless, simulation results also suggest that these risks can be addressed through earlier planting. Based on the combined results, gains in yield, yield stability, and technical efficiency can be enhanced in western Nepal by: 1) ensuring timely lentil planting to mitigate climate-mediated disease risk, 2) evaluating new lentil lines that may provide enhanced resistance to diseases and waterlogging, and 3) encouraging the emergence of mechanization solutions to overcome labor bottlenecks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'high speed' rotavator is used for shallow tillage to create a fine tilth and incorporate crop residues, often with a single tractor pass. Rotavator tillage has spread quickly in many parts of South Asia, despite short‐term experimental trials suggesting deteriorating soil quality and crop yield penalties. Evidence of rotavator impacts on farmer fields across soil gradients and time is largely absent. From a farm household survey conducted among wheat farmers in Nepal, we estimate wheat yield and profitability outcomes for rotavator adopters and non‐adopters using propensity score matching. We find that rotavator adoption leads to inferior outcomes, despite significant cost savings for land preparation (US$ 11–15 per hectare). With rotavator adoption, farmers lose about 284–309 kg of wheat grain and about US$ 93–101 of profits on average per hectare per season, and these penalties increase with longer‐term use of the technology. Adoption of rotavator appears to be driven by the cost and time savings for land preparation. Against this backdrop, new policy and extension efforts are required that discourage rotavator use and favour more sustainable tillage technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most rice farmers in Nepal's Terai region do not fully utilize irrigation during breaks in monsoon rainfall. This leads to yield losses despite abundant groundwater resources and ongoing expansion of diesel pumps and tubewell infrastructure. We investigate this puzzle by characterizing delay factors governing tubewell irrigation across wealth and precipitation gradients. After the decision to irrigate, different factors delay irrigation by roughly one week. While more sustainable and inexpensive energy for pumping may eventually catalyze transformative change, we identify near-term interventions that may increase rice farmers' resilience to water stress in smallholder-dominated farming communities based on prevailing types of irrigation infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfed maize (Zea mays L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production in the midhill region of Nepal is limited in the winter season by cool temperatures, low rainfall, and low fertility. Here, we use the Decision Support System for Agricultural Transfer Cropping System Model (DSSAT-CSM) to simulate potential productivity for conservation agriculture (CA) and conventional practice (CP), contrasting N application rates, and wheat planting dates ranging from 1 September to 15 December under six different weather scenarios in the midhills of Nepal. Total maize plus wheat aboveground biomass increased up to 56% with longer vs. shorter duration maize varieties, but the subsequent dry-season wheat failed 71% of the time after late-planted, long-season maize in areas where mean seasonal temperature was below 14°C. The optimal wheat planting date increased from August to December as seasonal rainfall amount increased. Increasing N application rate in wheat from 50 to 150 kg ha-1 resulted in significant yield and net profit gains for all weather scenarios given current grain and fertilizer prices in the midhills, especially where conditions were cool and rainfall exceeded 400 mm. Principal component analysis of soil and climate parameters indicated that CA benefits most from higher N application rates when conditions are cool and wet due to increased residue retention coupled with slow soil organic matter decomposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation agriculture (CA) is a management system characterized by zero or minimum tillage, permanent soil cover with crop residue or plant growth, and crop rotation. This study investigated the impact of conservation tillage, crop type, and planting date on crop productivity and the soil physical properties for 2 yr following conversion to CA. After 2 yr, average mean weight diameter of dry aggregates for the 0- to 5-cm and 5- to 10-cm soil depths were 45 and 24% greater in the CA treatment than the conventional practice (CP) treatment, respectively. However, soil sorptivity was about three times slower in CA than in CP for rapeseed (Brassica napus L. toria) rotation treatments, but only 62% slower in CA than CP for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation treatments. Soil bulk density to a depth of 15 cm was greater in CA (1.30 g cm-3) than CP (1.24 g cm-3), but only for late-planted treatments. Maize (Zea mays L.) yields for CA were not different from CP in the first year, but were 1.4 Mg ha-1 for CA and 5.0 Mg ha-1 for CP in the second year due to poor stand establishment under CA. There were no effects of CA on dry-season rapeseed and wheat. Results suggest that during the transition of CP to CA, soil physical properties can be improved but yields may remain constant or decline. Achieving equivalent yield outcomes between CA and CP will largely depend on equivalent stand establishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Labor shortage due to out-migration adversely affected smallholder farmers in Nepal. • Adoption of scale-appropriate mechanization increased rice productivity by 1110 kg/ha. • Adoption of mechanization by non-adopters would increase rice productivity by 1250 kg/ha. • Very small rice cultivating farms (≤0.25 ha) benefited most from adoption of mechanization. • Rising on-farm rural wage due to labor shortage was the primary driver of mini-tiller adoption. Smallholder farmers in the mid-hills of Nepal are facing an acute labor shortage due to out-migration which, in general, has affected the capacity to achieve timely crop establishment, harvest, and inter-cultural operations. These effects are more visible in the case of labor-intensive crops such as rice and promoting higher levels of rural mechanization has emerged as the primary policy response option. Nevertheless, quantitative evidence for the ability of mechanization to offset the adverse effects of shortages increasing labor prices in these systems is largely absent. This study investigates the impacts associated with adoption of mini-tillers (5 to 9 horsepower) for land preparation on smallholder rice productivity in the mid-hills of Nepal. We use an endogenous switching regression that accounts for both observed and unobserved sources of heterogeneity between mini-tiller adopters and non-adopters. Findings demonstrate that rising on-farm rural wage rates and an emerging decline in draft animal availability are driving adoption of the mini-tiller. Among users, the mini-tiller increased rice productivity by 1,110 kg/ha (27%). Further, regression results suggest that mini-tiller non-adopters would be able to increase their rice productivity by 1,250 kg/ha (26%) if they adopt. Moreover, our analysis revealed that very small farms (≤0.25 ha) that adopt mini-tillers are benefited the most in terms of gains in rice productivity. These findings support policies that favor the expansion of small-scale mechanization in the hill production ecologies of South Asia and highlight the need to foster the emergence of an associated service economy that will permit smallholders access to capital-intensive machinery such as the mini-tiller. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Mechanization provided more predictable profit and return on investment of inputs. • Applying inputs by hand disassociated fertilizer from end of season yield. • Chest-mounted spreader can be stop-gap between hand distributed inputs and zero-till. • Labor efficiency was roughly doubled by using chest-mounted spreader. • Chest-mounted spreader increased within and between-field uniformity of yield. Abstract Nepal is at a crossroads of diminishing farm-labor and inadequate investment into farming operations that, among other factors, have stagnated domestic wheat yield. Cultural and economic constraints have hindered the widespread adoption of more expensive precision agriculture technologies like zero-till that have the capacity to improve labor and farm input efficiencies. To capture the benefits from added precision of application but with the ability to fit within the current semi-mechanized seed bed preparation and tillage system, we introduced a low-cost, chest mounted seed and fertilizer. We found that simple mechanization caused yield efficiencies to be positive and significant for nitrogen and phosphate. Seed rates using this method were positively associated with seedling density. This led to both yield and profit being more predictable for farmers. Conversely, hand-applied inputs caused a disassociation between inputs and end of season yield and therefore added a large measure of risk to their farming operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maintaining and improving household food self-sufficiency (FSS) in mountain regions is an ongoing challenge. There are many facets to the issue, including comparatively high levels of land fragmentation, challenging terrain and transportation bottlenecks, declining labor availability due to out-migration, and low technical knowledge, among others. Using a nonparametric multivariate approach, we quantified primary associations underlying current levels of FSS in the mid-hills of Nepal. A needs assessment survey was administered to 77 households in Lungaun (Baglung District), Pang (Parbat District), and Pathlekhet (Myagdi District), with a total of 80 variables covering five performance areas; resulting data were analyzed using Classification and Regression Trees. The most parsimonious statistical model for household FSS highlighted associations with agronomic management, including yields of maize and fingermillet within a relay cropping system and adoption of improved crop cultivars. Secondary analyses of the variables retained in the first model again focused primarily on crop and livestock management. It thus appears that continued emphasis on technical agricultural improvements is warranted, independent of factors such as land holding size that, in any case, are very difficult to change through development interventions. Initiatives to increase household FSS in the mid-hills of Nepal will benefit from placing a primary focus on methods of agricultural intensification to improve crop yields and effective technology transfer to increase adoption of these methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes smallholder farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for the purchase of scale-appropriate farm mechanization in the hill ecologies of Nepal using the case of mini-tiller technology: a small, 5–7 horsepower two-wheel tractor primarily used for agricultural land preparation. Using primary survey data from 628 randomly-selected households, we find that farm size, local wage rates, out-migration, access to credit services, and associations with agricultural cooperatives positively influence the WTP for mini-tillers while the number of draft animals owned negatively influence the WTP for mini-tillers. On average, farmers were willing to pay 31% less than the actual price of a mini-tiller. Results also exhibited a heterogeneous demand in which the lowest quartile farm size households, typically the poorest farm households, were willing to pay 26% less for the mini-tiller than the top quartile of farms. In the context of labor scarcity and rising rural wages, agricultural policy on farm mechanization in Nepal should aim to prioritize small farms through robust service provision models in order to increase the level of farm mechanization in the country. • Scale-appropriate mechanization has the potential to mitigate the problem of labor scarcity. • Farm size, on-farm labor wages, and access to credit are positively associated with WTP for the mini-tiller. • Number of draft animals owned is negatively associated with WTP for the mini-tiller. • Farmers' average WTP was 31% lower than the actual mini-tiller price. • Compared to the richest quartile farms, the WTP of the poorest quartile was 26% lower for mini-tillers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is among the most important staple food crops in the lowland Terai region of Nepal. However, national production has not matched the increasing demand. From a South Asian regional perspective, average productivity is low with high spatial and temporal variability. This study determines entry points for closing yield gaps using multiple diagnostic approaches, i.e., field surveys, on-farm experiments, and simulation models across different wheat production environments in the Terai region of Nepal. Yield and production practice data were collected from 1745 wheat farmers' fields and analysed in tandem with over 100 on-farm experiments. These were complemented by long-term simulation modeling using the APSIM Next Generation to assess system production behavior over a range of climate years. On-farm survey data suggests that yield and profit gaps under farmers' management (difference between the most productive (top 10th decile) and average wheat fields) were 1.60 t ha−1 and 348 USD ha−1 in the Terai region. The potential yield gap (difference between simulated potential yield and surveyed population mean) estimated was 4.63 t ha−1, suggesting ample room for growth even for the highest-yielding fields. Machine learning diagnostics of survey data, and on-farm trials identified nitrogen rate, irrigation management, terminal heat stress, use of improved varieties, seeding date, seeding method, and seeding rate as the principal agronomic drivers of wheat yield. While fields in the top 10th decile yield distribution had higher fertilizer use efficiencies and irrigation and seeding rates with similar overall production costs as average-yielding farmers. Our results suggest a complementary set of agronomic interventions to increase wheat productivity among lower-yielding farms in the Terai including advancing the time of seeding by 7–10 days on average, increasing nitrogen fertilizer by 20 kg ha−1, and alleviating water stress by applying two additional irrigations. Although wheat yields in the Terai are among the lowest in the region, biophysical production potential is high and remains largely untapped due to sub-optimal agronomic management practices rather than intrinsic agroecological factors. Data from this study suggests that incremental changes in these practices may result in substantial gains in productivity and profitability. [Display omitted] • Low productivity & profitability typify wheat production systems in Nepal Terai • Field survey, experiments & modeling were used to explore intensification options • Yield gap of 1.6 t ha−1 & profit gap of 348 USD ha−1 exists in in wheat Nepal Terai • Nitrogen, terminal heat & irrigation are principal drivers on yield & profit gaps • Integrated good agronomic practices is required for closing yield & profit gaps [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability and insufficient irrigation are primary constraints to stable and higher agricultural productivity and food security in Nepal. Agriculture is the largest global freshwater user, and integration of surface- and ground-water use is frequently presented as an strategy for increasing efficiency as well as climate change adaptation. However, conjunctive management (CM) planning often ignores demand-side requirements and a broader set of sustainable development considerations, including ecosystem health and economics of different development strategies. While there is generic understanding of conjunctive use, detailed technical knowhow to realize the CM is lacking in Nepal. This article presents a holistic framework through literature reviews, stakeholders consultations and expert interviews for assessing CM and implementation prospects from a systems-level perspective. We demonstrate the framework through a case study in Western Nepal, where climatic variability and a lack of irrigation are key impediments to increased agricultural productivity and sustainable development. Results show that knowledge of water resources availability is good and that of water demand low in the Western Terai. Additional and coordinated investments are required to improve knowledge gaps as well as access to irrigation. There is therefore a need to assess water resources availability, water access, use and productivity, to fill the knowledge gaps in order to pave pathways for CM. This paper also discusses some strategies to translate prospects of conjunctive management into implementation. • Customized framework development for assessing prospects for conjunctive management. • Conjunctive management status in western Nepal assessed by applying the framework. • Knowledge on water availability and demand are moderate and low, respectively. • Additional and coordinated investments required to improve access to irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice is the primary staple food crop in Nepal, contributing 20% of the agricultural gross domestic product and more than 50% of the total calories in the national diet. Nevertheless, the productivity of rice (3.36 t ha−1) is the lowest in South Asia region. The objective of this study was to employ a mixed-methods approach to characterize and decompose yield gaps (YGs) in the context of identifying sustainable intensification pathways for rice production in Nepal. Methodologies include: a) landscape-scale crop diagnostic survey on crop management, field attributes, and productivity outcomes combined with gridded soil and daily weather data to decompose rice yield gaps into constituent factors with machine learning diagnostics; b) with survey data, computation of key performance indicators to identify factors associated with productivity, profitability, and resource use efficiencies; c) complementary multi-location on-farm experiments (2011–2017) evaluating new agronomic management practices; and d) dynamic simulation (ORYZA3) to derive estimates of rice yield potential. Analysis of survey data suggests an exploitable YG of 2.57 t ha−1 (40%) and the total YG of 4.85 t ha−1 (55%) indicating substantial scope for increasing rice yields in Nepal. Frequency of irrigation, amount of late-season rainfall, soil type, amount of early-season rainfall, presence of water stress, soil pH, and nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizer rates are the principal determinants of productivity outcomes in descending ranked order. Efficiency metrics suggest rice farmers in the study region make good use of fertilizer inputs, but since application rates are very low (e.g. most farmers apply <20 kg P ha−1) unsustainable mining of soil nutrients is likely common. Farmers in the top 10% of the yield distribution had lower greenhouse gas emission intensities (−43%), increased water productivity (+66%), and higher use efficiencies of N and P fertilizers (+28% and + 20%, respectively), suggesting that yield intensification can be achieved without tradeoffs with key environmental performance indicators. On-farm experiments conducted over several seasons support insights from surveys by demonstrating that major gains in rice yield (1.86 t ha−1) and profitability (US$ 243 ha−1) are achievable through the adoption of good agronomic practices. Through a mixed methods approach, our results suggest that adoption of integrated 'good agronomic practices' can close YGs and improve food security outcomes associated with the rice-based agricultural systems of Nepal while simultaneously preserving or enhancing key sustainability and livelihood objectives. [Display omitted] • Mixed-method approach used to decompose rice yield gaps with landscape-scale surveys, on-farm experiments, and modeling. • Sizeable exploitable (2.58 t ha−1) and total yield gaps (4.85 t ha−1) were documented across the Terai of Nepal. • Principal drivers of yield outcomes include irrigation intensity, rainfall, nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. • Top-yielding farmers had lower GHG emission intensities (43%) with increased water and nutrient use efficiencies. • Transformative rice yield (1.86 t ha−1) and profitability (US$ 243 ha−1) gains were achieved by 'good agronomic practices'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We quantify the robustness of nitrogen flow networks in smallholder farms in Nepal. • Robustness represents the balance between system's flexibility and organization. • N cycling was limited (<15%) and losses were large, up to 1135 kg N/ha/year. • Robustness of N flows was low as flows were unidirectional from imports to losses. • Higher crop yields increased organization and robustness of farm N flows. Nitrogen (N) is often the most limiting nutrient to productivity in smallholder mixed crop-livestock systems such as commonly found in the mid-hills and lowland (Terai) of Nepal. Identifying current bottlenecks constraining agroecosystem functioning in terms of N flows and associated improvement options in these systems is paramount. Here, we explore variations in robustness, a concept from ecological network analysis (ENA) which represents the balance of system's degree of order between organization (order/constraint) and adaptive flexibility (freedom/resilience) of N flows. Robustness can provide a detailed assessment of N flows and assist in evaluation of measures to reduce nutrient losses. In this study, the FarmDESIGN model was employed to quantify nitrogen flows, generate ENA indicators of integration, diversity and robustness, and to explore the impact of crop intensification options on N networks across farm types in the mid-hills and lowland (Terai) of Nepal. Results revealed that the farms in the different agroecosystems recycled only a small portion of the total N inputs (<15%), and had therefore high rates of N losses (63–1135 kg N per ha per year) and high dependency on N imports in the form of fodder (feed self-reliance 11–43%). The farm N networks were organised (high productivity) but inflexible (poorly resilient) and consequently unbalanced (low robustness). Scenarios of improved management (improved seed, intercropping, use of fertilizers, better timing of activities) resulted in improved crop production, leading to reduced fodder imports and less N losses. Consequently, the N networks increased in flexibility which resulted in greater robustness of the N flow network in the farm systems. Increasing on-farm biomass production by improved farm management could be an important element on the way to sustainably intensify smallholder farms, especially when dependency on external resources can be reduced. We conclude that a detailed analysis of nutrient flows and their robustness is a suitable instrument for targeted improvement of nutrient use in smallholder crop-livestock systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]