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Context. The aim of farm-systems research is to test concepts in a holistic context that enables results to be as applicable as possible to commercial farmers. A downside of such research has been that it can take several seasons to be confident in the consistency of the outcomes and interpretation of the results. Scientists are often reluctant to communicate outcomes until they have clear conclusions, which conflicts with farmers' desire to see rapid answers and engage with research. Aims. This paper reviews a 3-year farm-systems research project investigating flexible milking strategies for New Zealand dairy farmers. The aims of this paper are to (1) examine the impact of real-time science communication in achieving farm system change, and (2) develop a framework for science communication and engagement in adaptive farm-systems research. Methods. The project involved farmer interviews, a farmlet experiment, a component experiment, partner farms, modelling, and a farmer reference group. We use data from sources such as e-newsletter engagement, webinar participation, web-page engagement, presentation attendance, and farmer feedback to collect insights on the impact of the project. Key results. The analysis highlighted that farmers do not always seek complete information and will follow a project as it evolves, particularly when it is highly topical. We propose a framework for delivering adaptive farm systems research and communication. The framework includes the critical aspects for real-time farm-systems research: credible evidence, rapid results, inclusion of farmer voices, meaningful outcomes, flexible communication channels, iterative feedback loops, and adaptable research design. Conclusion. Farm-systems research can be designed to communicate results to farmers as a project develops, while simultaneously using the engagement with farmers to refine the direction of the research. Implications. This framework can guide scientists leading multi-year farm systems projects to design, implement, and communicate the project outcomes to improve farmer engagement and adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Separation of the cow and calf shortly after birth is a common practice on commercial dairy farms around the world, but there are emerging concerns about this practice among citizens and other stakeholders. Continuous improvement of on-farm management practices in collaboration with dairy sector stakeholders increases the likelihood that farming systems evolve in a way that is consistent with societal expectations. Few commercial dairy farms provide extended cow-calf contact, and there is little understanding of how dairy farmers view this practice. This study examined the views of New Zealand dairy farmers toward providing cow-calf contact, particularly the barriers to adopting such a system in a seasonal-calving pasture-based dairy system. Standard farm practice in New Zealand is to remove the calf from the cow around 24 h (but could be up to 48 h) after birth. These conventional farmers (n = 63) were randomly selected from the database of all dairy farmers in New Zealand and telephone-interviewed using a semistructured interview format. Their responses to questions about providing cow-calf contact (defined as contact beyond the standard practice of 48 h) were analyzed using thematic analysis. Three major themes of concern were identified by these farmers about providing cow-calf contact as follows: (1) poor animal welfare, especially the risk of mastitis in the dam, inadequate colostrum for the calf, increased stress from delayed separation, and lack of shelter for calves while outdoors with the cow; (2) increased labor and stress on staff; and (3) system-level changes required, including infrastructure and herd management. Many of these concerns stemmed from challenges related to the nature of large-scale seasonal-calving pasture-based dairy systems, where a large number of calves are born in a short period of time and may be exposed to inclement weather in late winter in some areas. Several small-scale farmers (n = 4) providing cow-calf contact for longer than standard practice of 48 h were also interviewed; all permitted contact for at least 4 wk. These farmers also felt that animal welfare and health were important, and that this was promoted in their cow-calf contact systems. Concerns about colostrum and mastitis, for example, were not raised by these farmers, but they did agree that additional infrastructure and shelter were important considerations for cow-calf contact systems. Some conventional farmers expressed cognitive dissonance in that they theoretically preferred cow-calf contact but could not see it being realistic or practical to implement. Farmers currently providing longer cow-calf contact may be a useful resource for better understanding of how practical and economical cow-calf contact systems could be adopted on commercial pastoral dairy farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to compare breed proportions, genetic merit, milk production and survival of carryover and non-carryover dairy cows in New Zealand. Calving interval was used as a tool to identify cows that had an extended non-lactating period and then returned to a milking herd. A greater proportion of Holstein-Friesian was observed in the breed composition of the carryover cows. Estimated breeding values (EBVs) for milk traits were greater, but the EBVs for fertility were lower for carryover cows, than those for non-carryover cows. Carryover cow genetic merit values were greater than those for non-carryover cows in the year prior to their carryover period. Carryover cow milk production was significantly greater than that of non-carryover cows. The average survival days and probability of survival for second-lactation carryover cows was lower than that for first-lactation and lactation-matched non-carryover cows. These results are important for culling decisions made by pastoral dairy farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a variety of reasons, dairy sector indebtedness has increased in recent years. However, it is not clear whether increased debt boosts or damages the economic performance of dairy farms. This paper provides empirical evidence by exploring the effects of farm debt measured by debt-to-asset ratio on dairy productivity and profitability, using the New Zealand DairyBase data of 2,637 dairy farms for a 10-yr period 2005 to 2014. A fixed-effects panel data model is utilized for the empirical analysis. The findings show that farm debt is significantly and negatively associated with both dairy productivity and profitability. We find that dairy productivity is positively determined by production intensification, irrigation intensity, milking frequency, cattle breeds and stocking rate, whereas dairy profitability is positively affected by milk price, business type, milking frequency, and stocking rate. Further analyses reveal that the debt ratio significantly decreases both the technical efficiency of dairy farms and return on assets; a high debt ratio increased dairy productivity between 2005 and 2009, whereas it decreased dairy productivity between 2011 and 2014; the effects of the debt ratio on dairy profitability vary over time. The analysis for a 10-yr balanced panel data (250 farms) shows that debt ratio does not significantly affect both dairy productivity and profitability, which suggests that the presence of farm-specific attributes such as farm life cycle and managerial ability of dairy farmers may also affect the debt ratio and through this farm performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To attract and retain quality employees, dairy farms must be competitive with other workplaces offering more conventional hours of work. Milking requires significant labor input and influences the start and end times of the working day, affecting flexibility to suit employee needs or availability. The use of labor-saving technology and milking management strategies could help with this challenge. Previous studies have used scenario modeling in attempt to quantify the value of in-parlor technologies, however, they have relied on assumptions about the effect of the technologies on labor in the dairy. Similarly, the effect of management strategies on work patterns, such as flexible milking intervals (changing the timing of milking), has not been evaluated. The aims of this study were to (1) quantify the milking labor requirements in a range of pasture-based dairy farm systems and (2) identify practices or technologies that facilitate efficient milking. A telephone survey of 500 dairy farmers in New Zealand was conducted during April and May 2018, with questions asked about milking practices and technology use. Predictive analysis showed that at peak lactation, milking required between 17 and 24 h/wk per worker for farms milking twice a day, representing 43 to 58% of a conventional 40-h work week, depending on parlor type (herringbone or rotary), the number of clusters, and herd size. Using milking intervals of 8 and 16 h (intervals between milkings), compared with the more usual 10 and 14 h, largely avoided starting milking before 0500 h. Eight percent of herds were milked once a day, which required between 7 and 14 h/wk per worker (18–35% of a 40-h week). ANOVA showed that for metrics that related to people (labor efficiency and work routine), using automatic teat spraying had a positive effect on efficiency. Having both automatic cluster removers and drafting were associated with longer milking times in terms of throughput and row/rotation time compared with using drafting only. The results highlight considerable opportunity to reduce the number of hours those milking (employers and employees) spend in the parlor and increase staff time flexibility through milking (e.g., intervals between milkings) and parlor management (e.g., row/rotation time) and use of specific technologies. This study provides useful data for those wishing to analyze the likely value of an in-parlor automation technology or management practice for an individual situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been several analyses of the economics of pastoral dairy farm systems in New Zealand using real farm data, as well as several relevant international studies. However, these analyses have often used a dataset with a limited number of years that do not reflect long-term exposure to volatility, or do not allow for regional differences, and often focus on imported feed without due attention to other important characteristics of profitable farms. Several prior analyses have failed to consider the importance of a business that is resilient to major risks. We re-examined the relevance of their conclusions for New Zealand dairy systems against 12 years of DairyBase data, focussing on two major regions, deriving key insights on relevant strategic choices for profitable and resilient businesses at a farm and, by extension, industry level. Within years and regions, the top quartile of observations was identified, on the basis of ranking by operating return on assets, as a proxy for farms achieving their potential, and compared with the remaining observations. Within geographical region, the greater profitability of the top quartile was associated with greater pasture and crop eaten, greater stocking rate and production per cow, and lesser operating expenses per hectare and per kilogram milksolids (MS), defined as fat plus protein. However, greater profitability was not associated with greater use of imported feed. Linear regression was used to determine that increases in total operating expenses were associated with increases in the costs of imported feed (including winter grazing and silage made on farm). On average, for every NZ$1 spent on imported feed, total costs increased by NZ$1.66 and NZ$1.53 for the Waikato and Canterbury–Marlborough regions, respectively. This is consistent with the international literature for temperate grazing systems and is likely the reason why profitability was not greater even if above-average responses to supplement were achieved on farm. Indeed, greater use of imported feed was positively associated with operating expenses per kilogram of MS, implying that the marginal cost of additional MS was greater than the cost of the base milk, and often higher than the value of the milk produced. If gross farm revenue per kilogram MS (which is largely made up of the milk price, with a lesser contribution from livestock sales) was greater than NZ$7.50 (which it was the case in only 3 of the past 12 years), farms could generate higher profit from more imported feed use; however, the reverse was true at lower milk prices. When milk prices are low, (i.e. gross farm revenue is less than NZ$6.50/kg MS, which occurred in half of the past 12 years), farmers are often under cashflow pressure. Therefore, farm systems that are less reliant on imported feed provide a better chance for farmers to meet financial commitments, although they fail to maximise profitability when the milk price is high (e.g. >NZ$7.50/kg MS). In conclusion, maximising pasture harvested, and minimising reliance on supplementary feed, and effective cost control (minimising expenditure) are the key factors that lead to profitable businesses that are also resilient to the low milk prices that occur in volatile markets. Dairy farmers in pastoral systems face several risks, including price volatility. Farm data were used to understand how to be profitable and able to withstand these risks. We concluded that maximising pasture harvested, and minimising reliance on supplementary feed, and effective cost control (minimising expenditure) are the key factors that lead to profitable businesses that are also resilient to the low milk prices that occur in a volatile market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, dairy farmers face issues with attracting and retaining high-quality staff. In the present study, a qualitative research method was used to explore the current challenges in relation to people on farm, the approaches currently used by farmers to make dairying more attractive and productive for people, and perspectives on the challenges for attracting and retaining people on future farms. Current challenges were in the areas of recruitment, productivity, skills and learning, farm and industry structural issues, and impact of farm profitability on ability to implement new people practices. Participants' vision of the future dairy workplace was one that is highly dynamic, more open to consumers and the community, and largely data-driven. We suggest that dairy workplace research priorities focus on the design and testing of new systems to provide people with meaningful work and a good lifestyle, without compromising profit. Specific priorities include using new ways of connecting and communicating to create engaged and effective teams, developing flexible farm teams who deeply understand their role in the value chain and the consumer connection, defining the opportunity for technology to make the job easier and more enjoyable, developing farm systems that are safe, innovative, and provide a good career, and helping farming businesses demonstrate their people performance to consumers. Globally, dairy farmers face issues with attracting and retaining high-quality staff. Future management of dairy farms will demand farm teams with flexibility, understanding of consumer and community expectations, and the ability to effectively use technology, only exacerbating the challenge of finding the right staff. The present study used workshops and interviews with experts to examine people-related challenges associated with future dairy farms, and we suggest research and development priorities for the next decade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dairy farmers are adopting precision technologies to assist with milking and managing their cows due to increased herd sizes and a desire to improve labour efficiency, productivity and sustainability. In the present study, we evaluated the adoption of technologies installed at or near the dairy, and milking practices, on New Zealand dairy farms. These data quantify current use of technology for milking and labour efficiency, and decision-making, and provide insight into future technology adoption. A telephone survey of 500 farmers, randomly selected from a database of New Zealand dairy farms, was conducted in 2018. Adoption for all farms is indicated for six automation technologies, including automatic cup removers (39%), automatic drafting (24%), automatic teat spraying (29%), computer-controlled in-shed feeding (29%), automatic plant wash (18%) and automatic yard wash systems (27%). Five data-capture technologies also included in the survey were electronic milk meters (8%), automatic animal weighing (7%), in-line mastitis detection (7%), automatic heat detection (3%) and electronic animal-identification readers (23%). Analysis by dairy type indicated an adoption level for the automation technologies in rotary dairies of 36–77%, and 7–49% for data-capture technologies, with 10% having none of these 11 technologies installed. This compares with herringbone dairies at 4–21% and 2–11% for automation and data-capture technologies respectively, with 56% having none of these technologies. Rotary dairies, with a combination of automatic cup removers, automatic teat spraying, and automatic drafting, were associated with 43% higher labour efficiency (cows milked/h.person) and 14% higher milking efficiency (cows milked/h) than were rotary dairies without all three technologies. Dairy farmers will increasingly use technologies that deliver value, and the present study has provided information to guide investment decisions, product development and research in areas such as applying technology in new workplaces. Precision-farming technologies are receiving greater attention by researchers and policy makers for potential improvements in farm management. New Zealand dairy farmers have focussed on investment in automation technology in the dairy, some of which provide greater labour efficiency, rather than investing in data-capture technology for decision support. Further improvements in labour efficiency from technology in high-performing conventional dairies may be limited, and adoption of data-capture technologies may need to accelerate to support an increasingly diverse and less experienced workforce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The invertebrate pests most commonly affecting New Zealand's pastoral-based production in 'average' years cause losses of between $1.7B and $2.3B p.a. of which up to $0.9B occur on sheep and beef farms and $1.4B on dairy farms. The native scarab grass grub is the most costly pest causing losses of $140-380 M on dairy farms and $75-205 M on sheep and beef farms annually. The exotic scarab, black beetle, although only affecting approximately 1 M ha, costs dairy farmers up to $223 M and sheep and beef farmers up to $19 M annually. Porina cause losses up to $84 M and $88 M respectively. Pasture nematodes are estimated to cost up to $274 M p.a. for dairy farmers and $326 M p.a. for sheep and beef farmers. Two exotic pests, Argentine stem weevil (ASW) and clover root weevil (CRW) are causing damage estimated at up to $200 M p.a. and $235 M p.a. respectively in dairy and sheep and beef pastures. While CRW is subject to successful biological control management it still causes considerable losses. Lesser pests also contribute to lost production, particularly as they often coexist with more major pests. However, their economic cost to New Zealand is difficult to calculate due to the variable nature of infestations on both temporal and spatial scales. At farm and paddock level, it is abundantly clear that substantial savings could be made if pest management is achieved. It is equally clear that in many instances the tools to do so are limited but if developed would contribute substantially to farm profitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand dairy farmers are facing increasing pressure to reduce nutrient losses from grazing ruminants to the environment. Research suggests that the major source of nutrient loss is animal excreta which, for nitrogen (N), relates to cattle urine in particular. Most models used to describe N cycling and predict loss assume homogeneous distribution of urine patches across grazing areas. This study aims to provide baseline knowledge of the temporal and spatial distribution of N by monitoring the urination behaviour of individual dairy cows on a commercial farm using remote precision tools. The study took place on No 4 Dairy Farm, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand during early autumn in March 2009. Thirty cows in late lactation, balanced for milking order and age, from a herd of 180 milking cows, were fitted with global positioning system collars and urine sensors for seven consecutive days. The herd was milked twice a day and rotationally grazed, without supplementation. Cows were rotated through 12 paddocks, each ~1.1 ha. The majority of urine (85 % of total) was deposited on pasture, while 10 % of total urine deposits were captured in the holding yard and milking shed. Kernel density estimates indicated that urine patch distribution was not homogeneous, thus there was aggregation of urine patches within particular areas of the paddocks. Moderate correlations between the time spent in a location and urine patch density provided evidence that the time spent in a particular location was a factor affecting the density of urine patches. Substantial variation in results between paddocks suggested that paddock characteristics did not play a major role in determining urine distribution patterns in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of dairy farmers and processors in Australia and New Zealand are considered world class due to their ability to produce dairy products at a cost that is competitive on the world market without requirement for subsidy. International and domestic forces beyond the farm influence the international competitiveness of Antipodean dairy systems, as much or more than, the within-farm characteristics of the systems. Critical external forces include: world population growth, protein demand from increasingly wealthy developing countries, dairy supply from domestic and international producers, international dairy prices and exchange rate volatility. Within farm, the keys to persistent profitability, business survival, and growth will continue to be management ability and labour skill as well as the relationship between milksolids (milk fat + milk protein) produced per system and total production costs. Domestic forces will include competition for resources such as land, water, quality labour and capital, and public expectation that farms will meet the costs of community environmental and welfare objectives. Public and industry investment in research, development and extension in innovations that increase productivity is essential if dairying is to remain competitive. The operation of the comparative advantage principle determines which industries thrive, or decline, in an economy. New Zealand dairying has a strong comparative advantage over alternative pastoral industries which will continue. In Australia, the comparative advantage of dairy farming over alternative activities is less clear-cut. History shows that the best farmers and processors handle risks such as market and climate volatility and other challenges better than others, and their prospects are positive. However, world class performers in the future dairy industry will certainly not be all, or even the majority, of the current population of dairy farmers. Australian and New Zealand dairy farm businesses are world class, but there is no guarantee that their comparative advantage over alternative land uses will continue. An analysis of key physical and financial characteristics of dairy farming shows that there is wide variation in financial performance for farm businesses no matter what level of feed inputs are used. The best performers in both countries are poised to take advantage of the increased global demand for milk products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Dairy processors are seeking to exploit the natural variation in milk components at the farm level to produce high margin niche products. On-farm segregation of milk within or between herds and enhancement of desired traits are mechanisms to increase supply. A simulation modelling approach was used to investigate the genetic effects of breeding and segregating cows for an illustrative milk attribute, milk fat colour. This trait is valuable to New Zealand seasonal supply dairy farmers. Changes in production and the proportion of cows producing “white” (lighter milk fat colour) milk were predicted for a 20 year period for several selection strategies. Genetic gains relative to the status quo were predicted using sires from a small breeding scheme selecting for milk fat colour and yield. It took 18 years or more of continuous breeding for the whole herd to produce “white” milk, although not necessarily over the whole of the lactation under a pasture-based farming system. Selection on colour reduced yield of other valuable traits relative to the status quo herd. Initial selection of cows, reproduction and management strategies can all speed up progress but add cost. Premiums for segregated milks need to compensate owners for transition costs, production losses (if any) relative to the status quo, and the risk associated with long term change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

There has been an increasing demand for livestock products with credence attributes (CAs), such as environmental sustainability and high animal welfare standards. Although most livestock product CAs are strongly related to farm-level production processes, rarely have studies explored the issue from an on-farm perspective. Therefore, this paper aims to explore whether consumers' willingness-to-pay (WTP) a price premium could incentivise dairy farmers to deliver products with CAs in New Zealand. We first employed a meta-regression analysis to estimate WTP for CAs of dairy products, and then incorporated the WTP estimates into farm system models to estimate the economic and environmental (nitrogen and GHG losses) impacts for the farms. Data for the meta-regression models were sourced from a literature survey yielding 32 studies estimating WTP for CAs of dairy products. The results showed that price premium ranged from 5.3% to 47.5% for environmentally-friendly dairy products. Farm system (FARMAX), farm environmental (OVERSEER) and life cycle assessment (LCA) models were used to model the farm system changes required to deliver 'green' dairy by using data for the average Waikato dairy farm. The results showed that the economic and environmental outcomes varied over the predicted range in WTP as well as for different farm system scenarios. Findings of the study could help inform NZ farmers as to how to adjust their farm systems in response to market signals and thereby potentially gain a price premium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptospira infection in dairy cattle and leptospirosis in dairy farm workers were common in New Zealand prior to the introduction of dairy cattle vaccination in the 1980s. Despite widespread vaccination within the dairy industry, the long-term effectiveness of vaccination and current Leptospira exposure status remained unknown. A cross-sectional study was conducted from January-April 2016 to investigate the prevalence of pathogenic Leptospira spp. DNA in urine at cow and herd level, and its relationship to five Leptospira serovars known to be endemic. Two hundred dairy farms were randomly selected from the national database. Twenty paired blood and urine samples were collected on each farm from adult cows (n = 4000). Sera were tested using the Microscopic Agglutination Test against serovars Hardjobovis (termed Hardjo), Pomona, Copenhageni, Ballum and Tarassovi with titres ≥48 being considered positive. Urine was tested using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) that amplifies the gryB gene. All but one herd had been vaccinated with a bivalent Hardjo/Pomona or trivalent vaccine incorporating Copenhageni. In total, 2.4% of cows were urine qPCR positive and 27% of farms had at least one urine qPCR positive cow. Overall 63% of cows were seropositive to one or more serovars: 44% for Hardjo, 28% for Pomona, 15% for Copenhageni (in vaccinated herds), and for unvaccinated cows: 1% for Copenhageni, and 3% for Ballum and 17% for Tarassovi. Of the 94 qPCR urine-positive cows, 51 were seropositive to Tarassovi, 3 to Ballum, 3 to Copenhageni, 24 to Hardjo, and 17 to Pomona, the latter two presumably reflecting vaccination titres. A strong association was found between shedding and serology for Tarassovi. While there was no evidence that current vaccination programmes were ineffective in protecting against their target serovars, serovar Tarassovi has apparently emerged in NZ dairy cattle. As Tarassovi is currently not included in vaccines and is prevalent in notified leptospirosis cases in dairy workers, we concluded that this serovar poses a public health risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: New Zealand dairy farmers place cows in uncovered off-paddock facilities for a part (e.g., 18 h) of the day to reduce their impact on pasture during winter. Lying time is a key indicator of whether these hybrid pasture systems are meeting welfare requirements. While it is easy to measure lying time in a research setting using accelerometers, it is not yet common to measure it on farm, and more convenient indicators are needed. We investigated the lying behaviour of dairy cows as bedding quality deteriorated over a five-week period to determine what measures may be useful as farmer-friendly indicators of cow welfare. The daily lying time of the two groups of cows on bedding according to normal farm practice (NFP) declined over the five weeks and was significantly less than that of cows on fresh bedding during the last 10 days of the trial. The fresh woodchip bedding contained less than 65% moisture throughout the trial. By week 3 and week 4, the moisture content of the lying surface exceeded 75% for NFP Group 2 and Group1, respectively. A bedding moisture threshold of 75% assessed by a 'gumboot score' and cows lying rather than grazing when on pasture may be useful farmer-friendly indicators of cow welfare because of their relationship with reduced lying time. Bedding quality and cow lying time were measured during five weeks in a normal farm practice (NFP) off-paddock system with no bedding refreshment. Two groups of 100 non-lactating dairy cows were compared to groups of 8 cows with fresh bedding (FB). The cows were on a woodchip pad for 18 h/d at a space allowance of 5.4 m2/cow, with 6 h/d on pasture for 5 weeks. Lying times were recorded continuously for 60 cows per group using accelerometers. Bedding moisture content was measured weekly. Data for each NFP group were analysed and compared with those of their respective FB group using repeated measures. The lying time declined over five weeks from 11.6 h/day during the first week to 5.6 h/day during the fifth week (SED = 0.3; F1,25 = 351.56; p < 0.001). The moisture content of the bedding increased over the five weeks and was significantly higher for both NFP groups (NFP Group 1: F5,59 = 8.33; p < 0.001; NFP Group 2: F5,61 = 5.54; p < 0.001) than those of the respective FB groups. The percentage of total time lying when in the paddock increased for the NFP groups, reaching 15% in the last week of the trial. During five weeks on a stand-off pad, bedding quality deteriorated, and cows lay down less, to such an extent that welfare was compromised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four per cent of New Zealand's dairy farmers now milk their herds once daily (1x). Jerseys are more tolerant of 1x milking than Holstein- Friesians and the hours worth of udder capacity is greater for the former. We hypothesized that Holstein-Friesian cows with more concentrated milk would be more tolerant of 1x milking than those producing less concentrated milk. Seventy-two Holstein-Friesian cows were selected as a High milk solid content (fat + protein) group (High MS) and 72 selected as a Low milk solid content group (Low MS). Within each group, 23 cows were allocated to 2x daily milking and 49 cows to 1x daily milking with grazed pasture as the sole feed. Udder capacity was determined as the total volume of milk contained in the udder 40 h after the last milking. Residual milk was removed after an intravenous injection of 10 IU oxytocin. Udder capacity was measured at approximately 90 and 150 days in milk (DIM). Cows milked 1x produced less milk, protein and fat yields and had higher SCC (P<0.001) than those milked 2x. Cows selected for milk solids content did not differ in their milk, protein, fat yield or SCC. There was no milking frequency by milk solids content interaction. Cows milked 2x daily had greater udder capacities at 90 (P<0.05) and 150 DIM (P<0.07) than those milked 1x daily. High MS cows had lower udder capacities at 90 (P<0.07) and 150 DIM (P<0.1) than Low MS cows. Holstein-Friesian cows selected for phenotypically high milk solids content did not produce more milk, protein or fat than those selected for low milk solid content. The latter had 11-16% greater udder capacity when milked 1x daily in early-mid lactation and this may have compensated for their lower milk solid content. We conclude that milk solid content in the previous lactation is not an effective way of identifying cows that will adapt well to 1x daily milking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]