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Inclusive schooling practices that support immigrant students with low language-of-schooling proficiency to actively participate in learning within mainstream contexts is crucial during the newly-arrived phase. The concept of reciprocal integration and its more recent evolution through the inclusive education movement, reframes school-community relationships as negotiable and re-positions young migrants as empowered navigators of new routes into school integration processes. This study conducted between 2017 and 2019 examines how four immigrant teenagers ('late arrivers' aged between 13 and 15) navigated mainstream learning in two schools during the newly-arrived phase, in two different educational contexts - France and New Zealand. A key aim is to see where educational conditions and individual learning behaviours intersect, as a way of highlighting how students respond to differing integration variables within these two school systems. Four case studies explore similarities and differences, comparing effects on students' experiences of integration. Findings identify, describe and explain a set of common best practices for newly-arrived immigrant teenagers in mainstream learning, with implications for teacher education in language-adapted approaches.

Using machine translation (MT) tools for language learning has become a common practice among language students in recent years. Studies have investigated how students use MT, how students and teachers perceive its benefits and drawbacks and how helpful it is for language learning. These studies indicate that students think MT tools are helpful in L2 writing due to their quick and easy access and use them in many aspects of L2 writing, such as vocabulary search, grammar checking, and writing revisions. However, concerns for the accuracy of outputs, the effectiveness of MT for language learning and academic integrity are shared among students and teachers. This present study is based on a survey of 12 teachers and 150 students across five different languages and three proficiency levels at a tertiary institution in New Zealand. The quantitative and qualitative data were analysed to compare MT use and perceptions among proficiency levels and languages as well as between teachers and students. The findings reveal patterns that indicate different practices and perceptions between students of non-alphabet-based and alphabet-based languages. The analysis also demonstrates correlations between advanced-level students and more sophisticated and critical use of MT. With the proliferation of MT tools with neural machine translation (NMT) systems and improvement in their accuracy, the findings of this study contribute to the understanding of MT literacy to ensure effective and critical use of MT with an awareness of unique contexts and expectations of L2 writing in different language courses.

Since 2016, educational environments all over the world are being precipitated towards change and adaptation, in response to mass global immigration and increasing numbers of newly-arrived plurilingual children in schools. France and New Zealand provide two examples of populations that are highly linguistically diverse, yet take differing approaches to the inclusion of immigrant languages in the educational environment. This article compares the effects of language policies in a francophone/anglophone context on the inclusion of plurilingual immigrant children in schools, on three tiers: the language of schooling (French/English), second language options in schools, and the treatment of immigrant languages. Two main questions are explored: (1) How inclusive are language education policies in France and New Zealand? (2) How are educational environments responding to greater numbers of newly-arrived plurilingual students in schools, as well as the demand for language inclusiveness from established immigrant communities? A number of similarities emerge (school systems essentially dominated by monolingualism in the language of schooling), as well as differences (visible trends towards language inclusiveness in policy and practice in 2020). Findings support the argument that plurilingual approaches to teaching and learning improve educational outcomes for immigrant students, and therefore that educational environments that cultivate "language inclusiveness", particularly during the newly-arrived phase, are better equipped to support learning for immigrant students in schools.

This paper investigates the use of "Facebook" for out-of-class, informal language learning. 190 New Zealand university language students (Chinese, German, French, Japanese and Spanish) completed an anonymous online questionnaire on (1) their perceptions of "Facebook" as a multilingual environment, (2) their online writing practices and (3) their views on the educational value of their experiences. Findings indicate that language students are using a range of "Facebook" features to expose themselves to the languages they study (L2) and to communicate in their L2 with native speaker "Facebook" friends. The use of the social networking site varied according to proficiency-levels of the participants (beginner, intermediate and advanced levels), strength of social ties with native speaker "Facebook" friends and personal attitudes towards the site. Learning experiences on "Facebook" were not perceived as useful for the formal language learning context which suggests the need for bridging strategies between informal and formal learning environments.

Parents and prospective parents who speak a language other than English in New Zealand are in something of an information desert when it comes to how and why they might go about raising their children bilingually. While the official languages, Te Reo Maori and New Zealand Sign Language, have special status among the languages of New Zealand, other languages are viewed very much as the responsibility of ethnolinguistic communities. To support the intergenerational transmission of minority languages in New Zealand, research-informed material has been created for dissemination in a website, an associated Facebook page and a series of lecture-workshops for parents and professionals which have been made available in digital form in this website. Workshops continue to be offered to professionals such as speech-language therapists, early childhood educators, midwives, doctors, and nurses who work with families with young children. Questions asked during these workshops help to select the myths about multilingualism we need to address in this outreach to irrigate and green the information desert. Already, a bilingual French class and a Swedish playgroup have been set up as direct results of the parents' workshop events. Individual parents have reported feeling empowered to persevere in their efforts to raise their children as speakers of their language. Invitations to contribute to education programs for the professionals who work close to young children are beginning to arrive.

This study investigated the occurrence of incidental focus on form in an under-researched context, i.e. the intact foreign language classroom with near-beginner adolescent learners. Two classes of near-beginner learners of L2 French and of L2 Spanish participated in the study. All interactions involving the teacher and a proportion of the students were audio-recorded over three consecutive lessons in each class. During each lesson there were opportunities for students to use the target language in pair and group work. A total of 27 audio tapes were transcribed and all "language-related episodes" (LREs) where students attended to some aspect of language form, were identified and coded. Results, showing an average of 49 LREs per lesson, demonstrate a relatively high occurrence of incidental attention to language form in comparison with other research. There was a high incidence of student initiated focus on form and, as in other studies, learners were most often focusing on lexical features of the target language in the LREs. Overall results show that incidental attention to form is possible in foreign language classrooms with learners of low proficiency when they interact and work in groups and pairs.

The idea that task-based learning can be facilitated through negotiated interaction has been a major object of research amongst scholars interested in task-based language teaching for at least 30 years. In this article, I focus largely on one particular type of negotiation--the negotiation of form (hereafter NoF). My purpose is not to cast doubt on the practical effectiveness of NoF, but to question the limited attention paid by scholars to the importance of discourse and the role of context in rendering NoF prompts more or less salient to learners. In mainstream accounts of NoF, learners are understood to participate effectively in NoF by first engaging in communicative discourse with the teacher, and then periodically shifting their focal attention to form in real time and without disrupting the communicative flow. This rationale underplays the sizeable interpretative gap which attentional shifting requires. I argue that NoF might be more easily achieved (and more adequately explained) if it arises not through communicative discourse but through "learning discourse"--a discourse which involves engaging with language form as its overriding purpose. I provide some tentative evidence of a learning discourse in action and illustrate some of its difficulties through an example of a learner who struggles to participate in NoF episodes because he is caught between a pedagogic perspective and a socio-communicative perspective. I go on to consider the role of contextual cues in enabling learners to predict and thus to some degree prepare in advance for upcoming episodes of NoF. I conclude by suggesting that teachers might usefully take measures to raise learners' awareness of how and when NoF is typically operationalised in their classrooms.

This study examines whether the process of interacting in a second language, versus observing others interact, may differentially affect learner's awareness of language. This study involved 26 university students of intermediate-level French. Two experimental groups, Interactors and Observers, engaged in three sessions of dyadic task-based interaction. The tasks elicited use of noun-adjective agreement and the passé composé. Although the Interactors provided little feedback to one another, subsequent stimulated recall interviews suggest differences between groups as to what they were thinking about during interaction, with Interactors paying more attention to language form. The results suggest that active language production itself (rather than passive observation) pushes learners to think about how to express meaning in the target language, and to draw upon explicit knowledge of the language. The findings contribute to understanding roles of output in second language learning.

Many novice language teachers have difficulty putting into practice their developing knowledge of language teaching. This article focuses on one of seven case study teachers as an exemplar of those involved in a New Zealand in-service professional development program for teachers of languages (Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Spanish) in schools. The program was successful in developing teachers' understanding of what learners need in order to develop language knowledge. However, observations of the case study teachers revealed that some had weaknesses in classroom delivery, resulting in unproductive use of teaching time and minimum student language learning. To maximise learning, many experienced teachers have already established classroom routines and procedures. To assist novice teachers in addressing the microskills of classroom routines and the utterances needed for delivery to maximise productive time in language classrooms, we offer our Engage, Ensure, Sustain, Reflect (EESR) framework. A teaching event from a Year 8 French class is used to elaborate the framework which may provide support for language teachers to develop good classroom management skills. As well, the EESR framework may have relevance for language teacher educators working with pre- and in-service teachers. (Contains 5 tables.)

This article reports on a collaborative research project which involved first-year distance learners of Chinese, French, German, Japanese and Spanish at a New Zealand university. Drawing on the principles of Allwright's exploratory practice, the study aimed to gain an insight into the learners' experiences and conceptualisations in terms of their goals, the challenges they encountered and their strategic orientations towards dealing with these. The research revealed that learners regarded their own effort as the most important factor in achieving their goals and overcoming the challenges of isolation, a key barrier to achieving their primary goal of communicative competence in their target language (TL). We argue that the learners' strong sense of self-reliance is an important catalyst for autonomous and independent learning, which needs to be supported through learning environments where students can act and interact in new and creative ways and which can help them cope with adopting new roles and ways of learning. To this end, the study's findings contributed to enhanced e-tutoring and the development of digitalised advice by near-peer role models, which aimed to reduce the learners' sense of distance, promote interaction and, ultimately, improve their quality of life as distance learners. (Contains 1 note and 3 figures.)

This paper investigates the code-switching behaviour of two native speaker teachers teaching their mother tongue--French and Korean, respectively--to predominantly English monolingual students in New Zealand secondary schools. A close analysis of these teachers' classroom discourse and their perceptions about classroom language use reveals a range of factors which, in spite of their proficiency, constrain their use of the target language (TL) for teaching purposes. While the individual teachers' attitude toward TL use appeared to be the main determinant of their differing degrees of TL use for instruction, there were also institutional and societal factors which influenced the way they constructed their bilingual identities and manifested in different patterns of language choice. These factors included the status of the TL within the educational system, and the pervasive presence of English as the convenient vehicle for message conveyance in the wider context. Implications are drawn for teacher training and language policy.

This article examines the language choices made by native-speaker teachers of Japanese, Korean, German and French in foreign language (FL) classrooms in New Zealand secondary schools. It explores these teachers' patterns of alternation between English, the majority language, and the TL, using both AS-units (Analysis of Speech units), devised by Foster "et al." (2000) and a multiple-category coding system entitled "Functional Language Alternation Analysis of Teacher Talk" (FLAATT), developed expressly to allow a cross-linguistic comparison of the relationship between teachers' language choices and particular pedagogic functions. Findings suggest that the participating teachers differed markedly from one another not only in the amount of TL used but also in the pedagogic functions they used most frequently and in the language (TL or English) they chose for these functions. There was a tendency by most teachers to avoid complex interactions in the TL, limiting the potential for intake and for real communication on the part of the students. Implications are drawn for research and for teacher education. (Contains 6 tables and 7 notes.)

Experimental second language acquisition research typically investigates the effectiveness of instruction in terms of overall group gains. A particular instructional method may not, however, benefit all learners uniformly. This study, conducted in a New Zealand secondary school, establishes whether there is any relationship between the effectiveness of three instructional methods, and learner aptitude. Students (n = 60) were assigned to one of three groups (deductive instruction group, inductive instruction group, structured input instruction group) and received instruction that targeted direct object pronouns in L2 French. All students were assessed on the following three measures of language aptitude: (a) language analytic ability, (b) phonemic coding ability and (c) working memory. Results indicate that deductive instruction that gives students opportunities to produce language output may neutralize individual differences in language aptitude. (Contains 3 notes and 12 tables.)

This paper reports similarities and differences in teachers' corrective feedback and learners' uptake across instructional settings. Four communicative classroom settings--French Immersion, Canada ESL, New Zealand ESL and Korean EFL--were examined using Lyster and Ranta's taxonomy of teachers' corrective feedback moves and learner uptake. The results indicate that recasts were the most frequent feedback type in all four contexts but were much more frequent in the Korean EFL and New Zealand ESL classrooms (83% and 68%, respectively) than in the Canadian Immersion and ESL classrooms (55% for both). Also, the rates for both uptake and repair following recasts were greater in the New Zealand and Korean settings than in the Canadian contexts. The findings of this study suggest that the extent to which recasts lead to learner uptake and repair may be greater in contexts where the focus of the recasts is more salient, as with reduced/partial recasts, and where students are oriented to attending to linguistic form rather than meaning. The study underscores the importance of considering the influence of context on corrective feedback and learner uptake. (Contains 8 notes and 9 tables.)