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Residual feed intake (RFI) is a measure of an individual's efficiency in utilizing feed for maintenance and production during growth or lactation, and is defined as the difference between the actual and predicted feed intake of that individual. The objective of this study was to relate RFI to feeding behavior and to identify behavioral differences between animals with divergent RFI. The intakes and body weight (BW) of 1,049 growing dairy heifers (aged 5-9 mo; 195 ± 25.8 kg of BW) in 5 cohorts were measured for 42 to 49 d to ascertain individual RFI. Animals were housed in an outdoor feeding facility comprising 28 pens, each with 8 animals and 1 feeder per pen, and were fed a dried, cubed alfalfa diet. This forage diet was chosen because most dairy cows in New Zealand are grazed on ryegrass-dominant pastures, without grain or concentrates. An electronic feed monitoring system measured the intake and feeding behavior of individuals. Feeding behavior was summarized as daily intake, daily feeding duration, meal frequency, feeding rate, meal size, meal duration, and temporal feeding patterns. The RFI was moderately to strongly correlated with intake in all cohorts (r = 0.54-0.74), indicating that efficient animals ate less than inefficient animals, but relationships with feeding behavior traits (meal frequency, feeding duration, and feeding rate) were weak (r = 0.14-0.26), indicating that feeding behavior cannot reliably predict RFI in growing dairy heifers. Comparison of the extremes of RFI (10% most and 10% least efficient) demonstrated similar BW and average daily gain for both groups, but efficient animals ate less; had fewer, longer meals; shorter daily feeding duration; and ate more slowly than the least-efficient animals. These groups also differed in their feeding patterns over 24 h, with the most efficient animals eating less and having fewer meals during daylight (0600 to 2100 h), especially during the afternoon (1200 to 1800 h), but ate for a longer time during the night (0000-0600 h) than the least-efficient animals. In summary, correlations between RFI and feeding behavior were weak. Small differences in feeding behavior were observed between the most- and least-efficient animals but adverse behavioral effects associated with such selection in growing dairy heifers are unlikely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE:: To determine the serum vitamin B12 status of older New Zealanders and to assess the impact of atrophic gastritis on vitamin B12 status. DESIGN:: A cross-sectional nationally representative population-based survey. METHOD:: Serum vitamin B12 concentrations were used to assess vitamin B12 status. The presence and severity of atrophic gastritis was classified using serum pepsinogen I and II. SUBJECTS:: A total of 466 noninstitutionalized urban and rural dwelling New Zealanders aged 65?y or older who participated in the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. RESULTS:: The prevalence of deficient (<148?pmol/l) and marginal (148-221?pmol/l) serum vitamin B12 concentrations was 12 and 28%, respectively. The prevalence of atrophic gastritis was 6.7%(severe 3.1%, mild-moderate 3.6%). While atrophic gastritis increased the relative risk (RR, 95%CI) of having a deficient or marginal serum vitamin B12 concentration by 21-fold (6-67) and five-fold (1-17), respectively, those who had atrophic gastritis made up only 33 and 6%of the participants with deficient or marginal serum vitamin B12 concentrations. An intake of vitamin B12 from food that exceeded the recommended dietary allowance (2.4?µg/day) did not protect against deficient (RR 0.5; 95%CI: 0.2, 1.2) or marginal (RR 0.9; 95%CI: 0.5, 1.7) serum vitamin B12 status. Vitamin B12 supplement users had a reduced risk of having deficient and marginal vitamin B12 status (RR 0.3; 95%CI: 0.1, 0.8). CONCLUSIONS:: There is a relatively high prevalence of deficient and marginal serum vitamin B12 concentrations among older New Zealanders. However, the prevalence of atrophic gastritis was low in the New Zealand elderly compared with other surveys. Although atrophic gastritis was a risk factor for low vitamin B12 status, it did not fully explain the prevalence of low serum vitamin B12. SPONSORSHIP:: The New Zealand Ministry of Health and an Otago Research Grant.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2005) 59, 205-210. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602059 Published online 13 October 2004 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photosystem activity status of the green algal (Pseudocyphellaria lividofusca) and cyanobacterial (P. knightii) components of a photosymbiodeme were continuously monitored in the field over a period of 35 days. The photosymbiodeme grew on a Nothofagus menziesii tree at Lake Waikaremoana, Urewera National Park, North Island, New Zealand. Two Mini-PAM fluorometers were placed so that the chlorophyll a fluorescence, temperature and PPFD (photosynthetically active photon flux density) could be recorded every 30 min for green algal and cyanobacterial parts of the thallus. Microclimate conditions were also recorded with a datalogger. The study confirmed the already known ability of green algal lichens to reactivate from high humidity alone whilst cyanobacterial species need liquid water, here obtained from rainfall. The photosystems of P. lividofusca were activated on every day and positive ETR (relative electron transport rate) occurred on all but 3 days. Activation level depended on the overnight relative humidity. P. knightii was activated and had positive ETR on only 13 days when rainfall had occurred. Both species were mostly inactive above 12°C but differed at low temperatures. P. knightii showed no activation at very low temperatures, –2 to 0°C, since these only occurred on clear, rain-free nights. PPFD was always very low, mostly below 80 µmol m–2 s–1, and both species were inactive at higher PPFD. The three-dimensional structure of the thallus seemed to contribute to the hydration. The cyanobacterial sectors were more appressed to the trunk and needed substantial rainfall to rewet whereas the green algal lobes were more distant from the trunk and this probably caused more rapid desiccation as well as lower temperatures. It is suggested that the longer active periods for photosynthesis by P. lividofusca are balanced by several factors: first, depressed net photosynthesis at high thallus water contents after rainfall, a feature not shown by P. knightii; second, possible lower maximal net photosynthetic rates; and third, the possibility of greater respiratory rates when thalli have been hydrated by high relative humidity. There is little evidence for high PPFD differently affecting the photosymbiodeme components since sustained, high PPFD did not occur. It has been reported that the photosystems of cyanobacterial species from photosymbiodemes can reactivate at high relative humidity but the results obtained here suggest that it is not ecologically significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forty-four species of New Zealand lichens, including 22 species of Pseudocyphellaria and seven of Sticta, were assayed for nitrogenase activity by acetylene reduction. Nitrogen fixation was confirmed by 15N enrichment studies. Ten species, all with green algal phycobionts, showed no detectable nitrogenase activity; the remainder, including all species of Pseudocyphellaria and Sticta, assayed positively. Fixation rates were found to be species specific ranging from 0.2 to 52 nmol g-1 min-1. Nitrogen fixing lichens showed a species specific range of total nitrogen content and all had greater values than non-fixing species. Further analysis of nitrogen fixation in Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria species by plotting a graph of acetylene reduction against nitrogen content showed a highly significant positive relationship; also species of like chemical strain grouped together, and in any one chemical strain lichens with solely blue-green phycobionts possessed higher rates. The possibility exists that these lichens could provide a significant input of nitrogen into some native forests in New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A severe leaf disorder currently affects kiwifruit vines (Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa) in New Zealand and a number of other countries. The symptoms, which develop in mid-summer, include interveinal chlorosis, development of necrotic areas on the leaf and eventual leaf death. Field observations strongly indicated the involvement of the root system. The present study investigated the extent to which temperature and oxygen supply at the root influenced the physiology of kiwifruit vines. Maximum root growth occurred at 20 °C. while temperatures in excess of 25 °C reduced growth. Shoot growth was also reduced by root temperatures above 20 °C. No obvious leaf symptoms developed on the vines affected by the high temperatures. Below 20 °C there was a marked reduction in growth with little or no growth occurring at 10 °C. While soil temperature can be expected to influence root growth per se, it would appear unlikely that it directly controls the seasonal pattern of root growth or greatly influences the physiology of the leaf. This study showed kiwifruit vines are not well adapted to tolerate low concentrations of oxygen in their root zone. Growth was substantially reduced when the supply of oxygen to the roots was reduced. The extent of the reduction was proportional to the number of hours per day the vines were without aeration. Root growth was particularly affected. Distinctive leaf symptoms appeared on all oxygen-stressed vines and included the sudden appearance of large necrotic areas on the older leaves, sometimes preceded by an interveinal chlorosis. Measurement of the porosity of the roots indicated that the average air space between the tightly packed cells accounted for 2% or less of the total root volume. There was no obvious change in root porosity with decreasing oxygen supply or difference between the solution grown vines and vines from the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background - New Zealand children may be at risk for poor vitamin D status due to low vitamin D intakes, decreased sun exposure, and the country's location (35-46°S). Further, Mäori and Pacific Children may be at greater risk because of their darker skin. Objective - To determine 25-hydroxyvitamin vitamin D concentrations in New Zealand children (5-14 y) who participated in the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey. Design - The survey aimed to recruit 3000 participants with 1000 children each of Mäori, Pacific, and New Zealand European and other (NZEO) ethnicity. The nationally representative sample was recruited using a two-stage process involving random selection of schools followed by random selection of children within each school. Serum 25- hydroxyvitamin D concentrations were measured using a radioimmunoassay kit (DiaSorin, MN). Results - Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration [mean (95%CI)] in Mäori children (n=485) was 44 (39 to 48) nmol/L; in Pacific children (n=675) it was 37 (32 to 42); and in NZEO (n=499) it was 53 (48 to 58). Pacific females 11-14 y (n=160) were the group with the lowest serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, 32 (26 to 38) nmol/L. The prevalence of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency (<17.5 nmol/L) was 5% (3 to 10) amongst Mäori children, 8% (6 to 12) amongst Pacific children, and 3% (1 to 5) amongst NZEO children. The prevalence of insufficiency (<37.5 nmol/L) was 41% (32 to 50) amongst Mäori children, 59% (46 to 70) amongst Pacific children, and 25% (18 to 33) amongst NZEO children. Multiple regression analysis revealed that vitamin D concentration was lower in the winter [38 (35, 41) nmol/L)] than summer [53 (49, 57) nmol/L)], lower in females [42 (39, 44) nmol/L)] than males [47 (44, 49) nmol/L)], was highest in NZEO [53 (50, 57) nmol/L)] followed by Mäori [44 (41, 48) nmol/L)] and lowest in Pacific Children [37 (35, 40) nmol/L)]. Conclusion - Ethnicity and season are major determinants of serum vitamin D status in New Zealand children. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in New Zealand children are lower than in countries of similar latitude where vitamin D fortified foods are consumed. The potential consequences of this lower vitamin D status, particularly amongst Pacific children, are not clear but should be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnic differences in haematologic malignancies remain poorly elucidated, hence research in this area is important. This was a retrospective study into potential ethnic disparity in the presentation and outcomes of acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL) between New Zealand (NZ) Polynesian and European patients. Data were analysed for patients treated at Auckland City Hospital (ACH; n  = 55) and recorded in the New Zealand Cancer Registry (NZCR; n  = 173), both for the period 2000-2017. We found that Polynesian patients treated at ACH presented at a younger age than European ( P  = 0.005), showed higher blast counts ( P  = 0.033), and a marginally higher prothrombin ratio ( P  = 0.02). Treatment with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) was started faster in Polynesian patients than European ( P  = 0.021), suggesting Polynesians were sicker at presentation but were managed accordingly. There were no differences in bleeding events, transfusion requirements and early deaths during the first month of treatment. Long-term survival was also similar. Data extracted from the NZCR confirmed NZ Polynesian patients with APL were younger than European ( P  < 0.001), but long-term survival was similar ( P  = 0.920). In summary, this study indicates a discrepancy in the presentation and severity of APL between NZ Polynesian and European patients but treatment initiation was rapid with no difference in outcomes. The distinctive features of APL in NZ Polynesians raise the possibility of a predisposing genetic factor or a different risk factor profile, elucidation of which is important for all patients with APL.

Aim: To estimate volumes and costs of health services required for new cases of colorectal cancers in New Zealand from 2014 to 2026 in the absence of population screening., Method: Annual incidence of colorectal cancer, by stage, location and age was estimated for 2006-2026 based on NZ cancer registry data for 2001-2005. Treatment protocols were determined based on current best practice. An economics forecasting model was developed to estimate annual volumes and costs of health services to treat new cases of colorectal cancer expected to present each year from 2014 to 2026. Survival rates and other model parameters were drawn from the literature. Costs are presented at 2011 prices., Results: Annual health service costs of new colorectal cancer presentations in New Zealand are estimated to increase from approximately $83.6 million in 2014 to $100.2 million by 2026, if no systematic screening programme is introduced. The majority of these costs will be for surgery and colonoscopies., Conclusion: These results provide a baseline against which to compare the level of resources required if a population screening programme is introduced. Planning is necessary to manage costs and services for colorectal cancer, even without a systematic population screening programme.

Aim: In 2005 the National Screening Unit of the Ministry of Health appointed a Colorectal Screening Advisory Group to provide independent strategic advice and recommendations on population screening for colorectal cancer (CRC) in New Zealand., Method: Evidence-based review of relevant literature and assessment of CRC screening using the New Zealand Criteria to Assess Screening Programmes., Results: Guaiac faecal occult blood test (FOBTg), immunochemical FOBT (FOBTi), flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, and CT colonography were considered. FOBTg is the only test supported by high quality evidence from randomised controlled trials but has limited sensitivity and achieves modest CRC mortality reduction over time. FOBTi has higher analytical sensitivity than FOBTg and would be assumed to achieve greater mortality reduction. A CRC screening programme requires substantial planning and resources. Currently public hospitals cannot deliver timely diagnostic or surveillance colonoscopy., Conclusion: The Advisory Group recommends that a feasibility study of CRC screening using FOBTi be undertaken. This would help determine the performance of the FOBTi in the New Zealand population and whether the New Zealand health system could support an acceptable, effective and economically efficient CRC screening programme. To optimise the diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer there is an immediate need to expand colonoscopy services and to ensure that throughout New Zealand the treatment outcomes for CRC, both surgical and oncological, meet international standards.

Beta-casein is a cow's milk protein that occurs predominantly in two forms, A1 and A2. Epidemiological evidence suggests that per capita consumption of beta-casein A1 is associated with national mortality rates from ischaemic heart disease. A biological mechanism was proposed after rabbits fed diets containing beta-casein A2 had lower serum cholesterol concentrations and less aortic intimal thickening than rabbits fed beta-casein A1. We tested whether beta-casein A1 and A2 variants differentially affect plasma cholesterol concentrations in humans. In a randomised crossover trial of two four-and-a-half week periods without washout, 62 participants replaced all dairy products in their diet with 500 mL of low-fat milk and 28 g of full-fat cheese that differed in the proportion of beta-casein A1 and A2 variants. Duplicate blood samples were taken on non-consecutive days at the end of each treatment period from 55 people who completed the study. Mean (S.D.) plasma total, low-density and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were 5.60 (0.77), 3.73 (0.70) and 1.26 (0.34) mmol/L after the A1 diet and 5.63 (0.81), 3.75 (0.75) and 1.27 (0.37) mmol/L after the A2 diets. We found no evidence that dairy products containing beta-casein A1 or A2 exerted differential effects (P > 0.05) on plasma cholesterol concentrations in humans.

Introduction: Vitamin D plays an important role in bone health. Our purpose was to measure serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and their determinants in a national sample (n=2,946) of New Zealanders aged 15 years and over., Findings: Mean (99% CI) serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations were 47 (45-50) nmol/l in women and 52 (49-55) nmol/l in men. Mean concentrations in New Zealand European and Others (NZEO, n=2,440), Māori (n=370), and Pacific (n=136) were 51 (49-53), 42 (38-46) and 37 (33-42) nmol/l, respectively. Three percent of New Zealanders had serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations indicative of deficiency (

Objective: To determine the serum vitamin B(12) status of older New Zealanders and to assess the impact of atrophic gastritis on vitamin B(12) status., Design: A cross-sectional nationally representative population-based survey., Method: Serum vitamin B(12) concentrations were used to assess vitamin B(12) status. The presence and severity of atrophic gastritis was classified using serum pepsinogen I and II., Subjects: A total of 466 noninstitutionalized urban and rural dwelling New Zealanders aged 65 y or older who participated in the 1997 National Nutrition Survey., Results: The prevalence of deficient (<148 pmol/l) and marginal (148-221 pmol/l) serum vitamin B(12) concentrations was 12 and 28%, respectively. The prevalence of atrophic gastritis was 6.7% (severe 3.1%, mild-moderate 3.6%). While atrophic gastritis increased the relative risk (RR, 95% CI) of having a deficient or marginal serum vitamin B(12) concentration by 21-fold (6-67) and five-fold (1-17), respectively, those who had atrophic gastritis made up only 33 and 6% of the participants with deficient or marginal serum vitamin B(12) concentrations. An intake of vitamin B(12) from food that exceeded the recommended dietary allowance (2.4 mug/day) did not protect against deficient (RR 0.5; 95% CI: 0.2, 1.2) or marginal (RR 0.9; 95% CI: 0.5, 1.7) serum vitamin B(12) status. Vitamin B(12) supplement users had a reduced risk of having deficient and marginal vitamin B(12) status (RR 0.3; 95% CI: 0.1, 0.8)., Conclusions: There is a relatively high prevalence of deficient and marginal serum vitamin B(12) concentrations among older New Zealanders. However, the prevalence of atrophic gastritis was low in the New Zealand elderly compared with other surveys. Although atrophic gastritis was a risk factor for low vitamin B(12) status, it did not fully explain the prevalence of low serum vitamin B(12).

Aim: The study aimed to estimate changes in drug use, crime, imprisonment and societal costs among a sample of Maori and non-Maori injecting drug users (IDUs) on a methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) programme in Christchurch, New Zealand., Methods: Fifty-one non-Maori and 34 Maori IDUs were interviewed to obtain a self-reported history of drug use, crime, imprisonment, and effects on personal health. Information was obtained on drug use and crime before starting MMT and also after stabilisation on MMT. Follow-up interviews were conducted 18 months (mean) after the first interview., Results: Considerable reductions in the frequency of crime occurred--with 60% of participants reporting they committed crimes every day before MMT, compared with only 1% at interview. Large reductions were reported in both expenditure on illicit drugs and income from illegal activities. Reductions in opioid use and crime were similar for both Maori and non-Maori. A significant minority of participants reported continuing some form of crime while on MMT; 29% reported committing at least one offence during the week prior to interview., Conclusions: MMT is associated with a large reduction in the costs of crime and imprisonment among IDUs. This reduction in crime is similar for both Maori and non-Maori.

Aim: To identify a folic acid food fortification programme that will maximise the percentage of women of child-bearing age receiving at least 400 microg folic acid/day, the amount shown to reduce the risk of neural tube defect-affected pregnancies, while not putting population groups at risk of excessive intakes., Methods: 1997 New Zealand National Nutrition Survey data and a computer modelling programme were used to estimate folic acid intakes from simulated fortification scenarios., Results: Breads fortified with folic acid at 150 microg/50 g, white flour at 100 microg/35 g and liquid milk at 200 microg/200 ml, were found to be the best fortification scenarios. Thirty one percent, 21% and 18% of women of child-bearing age received > or = 400 microg folic acid/day from the fortification of bread, white flour and milk respectively., Conclusions: The most effective scenario for folic acid fortification is bread fortified at 150 microg/50 g. However, it is impossible to fortify food at a level that ensures the majority of women of child-bearing age receive more than 400 microg folic acid/day without exposing some people to excessive amounts of folic acid. The current public health message encouraging women to select folic acid fortified foods and take folic acid supplements, needs to continue.

The importance of selenium and zinc in the immune functioning of the aged is widely recognized. Seniors in New Zealand are at particularly high risk of low selenium status because of the low selenium soil environment. The zinc status of the New Zealand elderly has never been assessed. In this cross-sectional study, the biochemical selenium, zinc and lipid levels, physical functional capacity and dietary intakes of 103 randomly selected free-living New Zealand women (mean age +/- SD, 75 +/- 3 y) were assessed. Among nonusers of selenium supplements (n = 80), 80% [95% confidence interval (CI): 70; 88%] had plasma selenium levels (0.85 +/- 0.23 micromol/L) below 1.00 micromol/L [ approximately 10% below mean plasma selenium necessary for full expression of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in New Zealand subjects]. Plasma selenium was strongly correlated with GPx: r = 0.56; P < 0.0001. For nonusers of zinc supplements (n = 88), serum zinc concentrations were 12.4 +/- 1.4 micromol/L, with 12% (95% CI: 6; 21%) having levels below the cut-off value (10.7 micromol/L). Estimated mean daily selenium and zinc intakes were 34 +/- 10 microg and 8.7 +/- 2.0 mg, respectively. Subjects in the highest tertile of a functional capacity index had higher biochemical zinc and selenium values than those in the lowest tertile (P < 0.05). The correlation between plasma selenium and GPx indicates that selenium intake in these women is still insufficient for full expression of GPx activity. Lower serum zinc levels also appear to be prevalent. Because a suboptimal trace element status may be more common among those with a poor physical functioning, promotion of the consumption of nutrient dense foods or supplements to improve selenium and zinc status of elderly women in New Zealand may be beneficial.

Aims: To obtain estimates of the costs of the main options of care for the long term mentally ill and to compare different approaches to costing., Method: Resources used by samples of residents in extended hospital care (EC, n = 43), community staffed houses (SH, n = 30), boarding houses (BH, n = 43) and group homes (GH, n = 100) were identified and costed using both the expenditure and total resource concepts of cost estimation., Results: Using the expenditure concept of cost SH was the most expensive at $773 per person per week, compared to $700 for EC, $189 for BH and $155 for GH. Using the resource cost approach, valuing all resources used, SH and EC were similar at $790, compared to $184 and $169 for BH and GH care. Nursing was the most costly input with striking differences between nursing costs in the four modes of care., Conclusions: The results indicate a gap in the spectrum of residential care options, between high and low cost care. Future funding arrangements will require improved linkage between needs assessment and resource provision.