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Relying solely on public conservation lands for habitat provision will be inadequate for achieving national conservation goals. Production landscapes in New Zealand make up 60% of the land area and contain potential conservation habitat; however, the amount of native vegetation they contain is poorly known. While there have been previous assessments of native vegetation cover in New Zealand, no study has undertaken a national-scale assessment of multiple native vegetation cover types on different land uses. This absence limits the potential to manage production landscapes for conservation. Our study aimed to bridge this gap by using GIS and remote-sensing data to estimate the area of native vegetation, including forests, grasslands and wetlands, present on different land-use classes and in different environments. We found that while most of the country's remaining native vegetation was found on public conservation land, it was not evenly distributed across land environments and was biased towards high-elevation vegetation types. Yet private land, in particular sheep and beef farms, contained a quarter of the remaining native vegetation in the country, and 17% of remaining native forest. While this vegetation was often highly fragmented, it contained forest types that were otherwise under-represented on public conservation land. We conclude that sheep and beef farms in New Zealand have the potential to add to nationwide conservation efforts. However, realising this potential will involve improving the connectivity, area and quality of native vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite one-third of New Zealand's landmass being protected as public conservation land, the country still faces significant conservation challenges. Nearly 50% of the country's landmass has been converted to pastoral farming, and biological invasions pose a sustained and growing threat to remaining biodiversity across all land tenures. Managing and protecting biodiversity on-farm provides vast opportunities to create nature-rich pastoral landscapes. A key step towards bringing about necessary behaviour change to achieve this is increasing insights into farmers' attitudes towards the value of native biodiversity on their farms. Using a questionnaire underpinned by the Theory of Planned Behaviour, we surveyed 500 sheep and beef farmers from around New Zealand as to their beliefs and attitudes and perceived barriers relating to the protection and management of native biodiversity on their farm. Although the survey respondents were largely homogenous, the surveyed group of farmers were heterogeneous in their responses. When asked about advantages associated with managing and protecting native biodiversity on their farms, 690 distinct responses were provided, spanning social (47%), environmental (34%), practical (10%), and economic (2%) themes. In contrast, identified disadvantages were fewer (530 distinct responses) and less wide-ranging in scope, clustering around economic (44%), practical (26%) and social (25%) themes. Nearly three times as many farmers stated there were no disadvantages (22%) than stated there were no advantages (8%). However, the most frequently cited disadvantages were cost and time, which were also commonly cited as barriers to managing biodiversity. Our study illustrates that sheep and beef farmers perceive may advantages in maintaining native biodiversity on-farm, but there is a clear desire for greater support in overcoming identified barriers and this will require a targeted policy response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Gap creation in recovering rainforests may reduce the intensity of competition and provide opportunities for later successional species to co‐occur with predominant earlier successional species. This study examined the potential of artificial gaps to facilitate the natural regeneration and establishment of woody species in dense regenerating stands of Kānuka (Kunzea robusta) that have developed following the removal of degrading factors especially clearing and grazing in many parts of New Zealand. Artificial gaps were created through selective felling of Kānuka canopy trees and the species composition, density, growth and survival of native woody species regenerating in the canopy gaps and under paired intact Kānuka canopies were monitored for 28 months. Gap creation resulted in a significant increase in the number of species and density of woody regeneration including a wider range of woody species, although no mature phase species (including podocarps) were found, potentially due to seed limitations. There was no significant effect detected with respect to the interaction of time and gap creation on species recruitment. Survival and growth of woody regeneration were significantly greater in canopy gaps than beneath the intact canopy despite the higher proportions of herbaceous ground vegetation and browsing incidence in gap treatments. The tendency of woody seedlings to grow taller in canopy gaps may have permitted them more rapid recovery from browsing. The duration of the study was too short to fully capture the potential of canopy intervention, but woody regeneration within the artificial gaps is likely to accelerate as the regeneration proceeds, especially if browsing is controlled, and the results presented here provide useful insight into the early stages of this process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In post-disturbance grasslands in New Zealand shrubs can serve as nurse plants. However, while many canopy trees may establish under a shrub canopy, shade may also restrict seedling establishment. We assessed the potential of shrubs and canopy manipulations in restoring mature forest species in a stressful environment. Mountain beech (Fuscospora cliffortioides, Nothofagaceae) seedlings were planted in October 2015 and December 2016 in post-disturbance grasslands. Growth and survival were monitored over three growing seasons in five canopy treatments: open grassland, mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium, Myrtaceae) shrubland with intact canopy, mixed-species shrubland with intact canopy, artificial gaps in mānuka shrubland; and the grassland edge of the mixed-species shrubland. Understorey light transmission and canopy openness were quantified during the first growing season using hemispherical photos. Canopy manipulations caused significant differences in the light availability and canopy openness among treatments. We observed that seedlings performed better in the mānuka shrub with gap and mixed-species shrub canopies (intact and edge treatments), perhaps due to moderate canopy openness in these treatments compared to open grasslands and intact mānuka canopy. Growth and survival were positively associated with moderate log(light) levels, which correspond to light conditions in manuka with gaps and intact mixed-species shrubs and are likely to represent the net effects of these treatments. The results demonstrated that early-successional shrubs could be managed as nurse plants to control the effect of over-shading and facilitate the growth and survival of canopy species in a stressful environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pastoral farming is the dominant land use in New Zealand today and is under considerable domestic social and political pressure to reduce its environmental footprint. In this article, we explore options to enhance native biodiversity conservation within New Zealand pastoral systems. We argue that there is strong synergistic interdependence between biodiversity conservation and pastoral farming and suggest that it is possible to have win-win outcomes for both. Landowners need to be incentivised and rewarded for good biodiversity management, rather than relying on a strict rules-based approach. To bring integrity and objective support to this incentive-based approach, farmers need to adopt environmental management planning that is supported by good biodiversity extension resources. Alongside this, a verification system is required that shows farmers are doing what they say they are doing and reflects agreed management targets for biodiversity. This approach requires trust and partnership among all players in agroecosystems - farmers, government, food and fibre processors, scientists, conservationists, NGOs, and the wider New Zealand population. We suggest that if we change the way we think about how farming and biodiversity interact, then we will achieve substantial biodiversity gains across the 50% of New Zealand under pastoral farming. This then brings integrity to the existing and expanding market story for pastoral farming and creates a stronger connection between all New Zealanders and the farming sector. Advancing our thinking in this way will enable New Zealand to maintain a premium for our farming products internationally while supporting conservation of our native biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand's formerly extensive lowland native forests have been comprehensively cleared or modified, and large areas of secondary-growth vegetation have subsequently established. These areas are comprised of native, exotic, and mixed tree and shrub species assemblages. The mature-phase canopy and emergent tree species representative of pre-human New Zealand forests are often rare or locally extinct in these forests, indicating negative ramifications for long-term biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision, especially such as carbon sequestration. The successful recruitment of mature-phase canopy and emergent tree species may be prevented by biotic and abiotic filters related to dispersal (e.g. lack of seed sources or lack of dispersal agents), environmental variation (e.g. unsuitable germination microclimate or light availability), and competition (e.g. exotic weed competition). Failure of mature-phase tree species to cross through these filters may halt forest succession and cause arrested development of the ecosystem. There are also social and cultural imperatives for restoring mature-phase tree species, such as reassembling desired forest habitat and landscapes and providing lost natural heritage and cultural resources. Therefore, to restore secondary forests, depauperate remnant forests and create new forests that have complex structure, high biomass, and natural canopy tree diversity, mature-phase canopy and emergent species should be reintroduced through human interventions (i.e. enrichment planting). Experiments demonstrate that mature-phase tree species establishment can be optimised through canopy manipulation to address competition for light. Such targeted management can determine successful recruitment of mature-phase tree species, as can weed maintenance post-enrichment planting and landscape-level pest animal control. Currently political focus is emphasising planting of new early-successional native forests. However, support from scientific research and policy development is essential to actively recruit mature-phase tree species where they are now poorly represented and hence forest succession may be arrested. Afforestation and emissions trading policies need to support the reinstatement of mature-phase tree species within existing regenerating and degraded forests and newly created forests to facilitate the substantial ecological and ecosystem service benefits they provide over the long-term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts are being made to upscale restoration of New Zealand's native ecosystems. Success depends, however, on consideration of several key issues that need to be built into restoration planning, implementation and monitoring. This study makes eight recommendations to improve the prospect of obtaining the hoped‐for biodiversity conservation outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tree ferns are recognized as “keystone” species for their role in casting deep shade on forest floor environments, acting as a differential ecological filter on forest regeneration processes. Tree fern dominance is a feature of New Zealand’s central North Island exotic Pinus radiata (Pinaceae) plantations, particularly beyond 20 years following plantation establishment. In circumstances where plantation forests are managed for restoration of indigenous forest species, rather than timber harvest, an understanding of the competitive role of dense tree fern stands on forest regeneration processes in these “non-harvest” plantations is necessary. We investigated the competitive effect of tree fern (Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae) cover on seedling growth rates of two mature forest tree species, Podocarpus totara (Podocarpaceae) and Pittosporum eugenioides (Pittosporaceae), over two austral summers in five 36–92-year P. radiata plantations. We experimentally manipulated tree fern canopies in order to contrast heavy versus light shading. Tree fern removal significantly increased the growth rate of both P. totara and P. eugenioides , and the growth rate of the shorter-lived, faster-growing, light demanding P. eugenioides was greater than that of P. totara with tree fern removal. Damage to the seedlings by mammalian animal browsers when tree ferns were removed was greater than that occurring under tree fern cover. This damage diminished the effect of tree fern removal on seedling growth rates for P. totara , but not for the faster growing P. eugenioides . The physical clearance of tree fern stands and then the establishment of fast growing, locally representative, indigenous canopy tree species of low palatability, along with protection from animal browse, are suggested restoration strategies. Our results are consistent with existing literature in showing that where tree ferns are a dominant feature of plantation understories, deep shade is likely to reduce canopy species seedling growth rates, reducing the potential for forest regeneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealanders are constantly reminded of their degraded environment and the threatened status of their unique plants, animals and ecosystems. Instead of presenting these as symptoms of unsustainable living and the socio-economic system that rewards this, there has been a propensity to treat these as independent problems needing individual solutions with insufficient resources allocated to implement the solutions. For example, conservation of native biota and ecosystem protection are viewed as biological problems that are mainly the responsibility of government to be addressed through a government-based reserve system. In contrast, the Tahi Group view a diverse native biota and healthy ecosystems as essential elements of New Zealanders' heritage that require social engagement and innovative economic reform. Most of all, the New Zealand conservation paradigm needs to be broadened to encourage collaboration of a wider range of stakeholders and land owners and the application of new tools for learning how best to reverse ongoing decline of native biota and degradation of ecosystems. Diversification of conservation strategies has begun in small "bottom-up" ways in communities, organizations, businesses and institutions, powered by commitment and energy of many individual citizens. These strategies, where monitored, demonstrate effective and efficient actions that inspires hope for a future that fully integrates conservation as a normal and an essential component of a prosperous economy and healthy South Pacific society with little or no government input. We make a plea to move from the constant reiteration of conservation problems to a focus on developing and implementing solutions to these problems with the engagement of all New Zealanders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions Is trait convergence more intense when soil resource availability and disturbance constrain productivity and limit above-ground competition? Do the effects of productivity and disturbance on functional diversity differ between the local and metacommunity scales? Location Semi-arid grasslands in New Zealand (43°59′ S, 170°27′ E). Methods We measured trait convergence and divergence in grasslands along gradients of primary productivity and disturbance at local (i.e. 1 m × 1 m) and metacommunity (8 m × 50 m) scales, using long-term (27-yr) manipulations of soil resource availability and grazing intensity. We compared trait dispersion metrics to those expected under different null models. Results At the metacommunity scale, we found stronger trait convergence with increasing productivity and grazing intensity, where all short, slow-growing species were excluded from the potential species pool. However, once this broad-scale filter on species pool was taken into account, we found that at the local scale, abundance-weighted functional dispersion of co-occurring species was stronger than expected under our null model, thereby suggesting limiting similarity. Moreover, trait divergence became stronger at higher productivity and lower grazing intensity, where size-asymmetric competition for light is likely to have been more intense. Conclusions At the metacommunity scale, environmental filtering led to species with particular traits being excluded from the species pool. In contrast, at the local community scale where individuals interact, there was evidence of limiting similarity. Our results suggest that environmental filtering and limiting similarity are not mutually exclusive and jointly determine community structure, but can operate at different spatial scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Restoration of postmining substrates to native forest is a standard requirement of resource consents for mine sites located within areas of native forest in New Zealand. Unweathered waste rock presents significant challenges for plant growth, and past research highlights the importance of replacing soil as part of restoration. However, replacing soil with its horizon structure intact or even obtaining sufficient soil for restoration can be a challenge in some situations. In this paper, we describe the results of two trials undertaken at the OceanaGold Ltd. open‐cast gold mine in Reefton to explore the influence of substrate conditions on the growth of native forest seedlings. We show that beech (Nothofagus) seedlings grown on A‐horizon soil grew significantly better than those grown on soil mixed with waste rock, and both grew significantly better than plants grown just on waste rock. In the second trial, we show that bark chips are not a good substitute for soil. These results confirm the importance of having the correct substrate for successful native forest restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing interest in the use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for ecological restoration. Numerous commercial AMF products are now available and are often used in preference to collecting indigenous AMF in treating restoration plants. Commercial AMF products are typically based on AMF strains exotic to the plant species and locations where they are used. We treated rooted cuttings of an endemic New Zealand tree species ( Podocarpus cunninghamii) and an exotic and invasive grass ( Agrostis capillaris) with an indigenous, pot-cultured AMF ( Acaulospora laevis) and an exotic commercial AMF product ( Glomus spp.). P. cunninghamii was grown in monoculture and together with A. capillaris, the latter to simulate field competition that often occurs in restoration plantings. In monoculture, the indigenous AMF resulted in significant increases in P. cunninghamii growth rates and tissue concentrations of both nitrogen and phosphorus. The commercial AMF had either no effect or a negative effect on P. cunninghamii growth and nutrient levels. A. capillaris growth and nutrient status were unaffected by the different AMF treatments. Competition eliminated any AMF benefit for P. cunninghamii. The results show that, for our chosen indigenous woody plant species, the commercially available AMF did not improve its early growth and nutrient acquisition in monoculture while, over the same period, the indigenous AMF induced positive growth and nutrient responses. These results have potential implications for forest restoration, particularly for nursery production of indigenous woody species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Rates and spatial patterns of tree mortality were examined using long-term data from old-growth, mixed-species forests of the Maruia Valley, South Island, New Zealand. The aim of the study was to investigate patterns of tree mortality in two common, co-occurring species, Nothofagus fusca (Hook. f.) Oerst. and Nothofagusmenziesii (Hook. f.) Oerst. The dynamics of three old-growth stands were followed over a 23-year period, using plots sized 0.8–1.0ha. In total the fates of 1138 individual N. fusca and 1611 N. menziesii were recorded, which had annual mortality rates of 0.016and 0.0089per year, respectively. Differing spatial and size-related patterns of mortality were found between species. For both species, individual-based logistic models showed that slower growing trees were more likely to die than faster growing trees. N. fusca trees growing in previously disturbed stands were also more likely to die than those in undisturbed stands. Spatial point process analysis showed that dead N. fusca trees were spatially aggregated, and were segregated from living trees, a pattern that was consistent across both small and large trees. Dead N. menziesii were spatially aggregated, but were not segregated from living trees. Aggregated mortality of N. fusca trees should favor regeneration of this light-demanding species in large canopy gaps, perpetuating its aggregated distribution, whereas the lower mortality of shade-tolerant N. menziesii allows this species to persist. Our results demonstrate that performance differences in coexisting tree species can be manifested spatially. Between species, different mortality patterns may have implications for sustainable forest management. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study investigated the effects of the removal of sheep grazing on sweet brier (Rosa rubiginosa) in montane short-tussock grassland. Sweet brier is an invasive woody weed of economic and conservation significance in hill and high country. Destructive sampling of a range of sweet brier plants indicated that both volume and height are good predictors of sweet brier biomass. Brier density, cover and plant size were measured in five exclosure plots free from grazing and adjacent grazed grasslands near otematata, South Canterbury. An ungrazed block provided a further contrast. Brier was significantly taller and had higher cover and densities in the ungrazed sites. The total numbers of plants in all size classes were reduced with grazing, except for the smallest size class at one site. There were proportionately more small (<0.5 m) plants and less large (>0.5 m) plants at grazed sites. Our results suggest grazing is reducing sweet brier invasion and the abundance and vigour of existing plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity offsets are increasingly being used for securing biodiversity conservation outcomes as part of sustainable economic development to compensate for the residual unavoidable impacts of projects. Two recent New Zealand examples of biodiversity offsets are reviewed—while both are positive for biodiversity conservation, the process by which they were developed and approved was based more on the precautionary principal than on any formal framework. Based on this review and the broader offset literature, an environmental framework for developing and approving biodiversity offsets, comprising six principles, is outlined: (1) biodiversity offsets should only be used as part of an hierarchy of actions that first seeks to avoid impacts and then minimizes the impacts that do occur; (2) a guarantee is provided that the offset proposed will occur; (3) biodiversity offsets are inappropriate for certain ecosystem (or habitat) types because of their rarity or the presence of threatened species within them; (4) offsets most often involve the creation of new habitat, but can include protection of existing habitat where there is currently no protection; (5) a clear currency is required that allows transparent quantification of values to be lost and gained in order to ensure ecological equivalency between cleared and offset areas; (6) offsets must take into account both the uncertainty involved in obtaining the desired outcome for the offset area and the time-lag that is involved in reaching that point. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring of a major eastern outlier of the large alpine herb Ranunculus lyallii in the Rockwood Range, Canterbury, found little change in either population structure or reproductive effort over four growing seasons despite this period including some of the driest and warmest conditions of the last 10 years. The population structure suggests ongoing recruitment in recent years, possibly as a result of the removal of grazing pressure. It is suggested that the presence of this species under substantially lower rainfalls and higher soil moisture deficits than it normally experiences is facilitated by local site conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kunzea sinclairii is a local endemic on Great Barrier Island, northeastern New Zealand. While variously ranked as vulnerable and endangered in the past, we show that this species is naturally uncommon and under no threat of extinction. Previous assessments of its conservation status have been based on inadequate knowledge of its ecology. K. sinclairii is a rupestral species whose optimum habitat is low shrubland on rhyolitic rock outcrops and cliffs. Because of past logging and burning of forest adjacent to the habitat to which it is adapted, K. sinclairii expanded its range. However, in regeneration back to forest, K. sinclairii is being excluded as it is overtopped by other species. This has led to the impression that it is declining. Similarly, a suggestion that K. sinclairii could be threatened by hybridisation with the more abundant closely related K.ericoides is not supported as the hybrids are confined to the disturbed sites created by logging and fire. This case study highlights the importance of having a good understanding of the ecology of uncommon plant species before making decisions on their conservation. Natural rarity does not itself necessarily equate with increased extinction risk and these taxa should not be classified as threatened. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fire plays an important role in structuring wetland ecosystems, but previous studies of New Zealand wetlands have lacked adequate experimental controls. We investigated the effects of fire on the vegetation of a New Zealand peat bog through analysis of microclimate patterns, vegetation change, and peat stratigraphy. We focused on the role of fire in sustaining threatened plant species such as the critically endangered orchid Corybas carsei. Experimental fire significantly increased the surface radiation and daytime soil temperature, and these elevated levels of radiation and temperature persisted 53 months after burning. Immediately after fire no living plant material remained in the burn plots, but within 2 months many of the rhizomatous species were resprouting and 50 months later had returned to prefire abundance. Obligate-seeding species did not recover their former abundance, but several species not observed in the plots prior to the burns established after fire. Species richness, diversity, and evenness increased following fire but declined in the control plots. Species dominance decreased after fire but increased in the control plots. C. carsei , which was killed during the fire, reappeared in the burn plots 1 year later at a higher density than prior to burning and was still present 4 years after fire. C. carsei flowering was also enhanced following the fire. We found evidence of historical fires, which was supported by radiocarbon dates from a much older adjacent wetland. Our results suggest that disturbances such as fire are important for maintaining a diversity of plant communities, including the presence of nationally threatened and declining plant species in peat bogs. Without such disturbances species such as C. carsei are likely to become locally extinct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports that the management of indigenous conifer forests in Westland, South Island, New Zealand has focussed largely on harvest of the Podocarpaceae tree rimu. Examples of objectives including the maintaining of the pre-harvested state of the forest in terms of biomass, tree size ranges, natural spatial patterns, relative proportions of the major tree species, and forest timber quality.

AbstractThe success of restoration plantings in restoring indigenous forest vascular plant and ground invertebrate biodiversity was assessed on previously grass-covered sites in the eastern South Island, New Zealand. The composition and structure of grassland, three different aged restoration plantings (12, 30, and 35 years old), a naturally regenerating forest (100 years old), and a remnant of the original old-growth forest of the area were measured. The restoration plantings are dominated by the native tree Olearia paniculata, which is not indigenous to the study area. Despite this, indigenous forest invertebrate and plant species are present in all three restoration sites and with increasing age the restoration sites become compositionally more similar to the naturally regenerating and mature forest sites. In particular the regenerating vegetation of the restoration sites is very similar floristically to the regenerating vegetation of the naturally regenerating and mature forest sites, despite marked differences in the current canopy vegetation reflecting the presence of the planted O. paniculata. The presence of regeneration in all three restoration sites indicates that the functional processes that initiate regeneration, such as dispersal, are present. The majority of regenerating tree species (71%) are bird dispersed and it is clear that birds play an important role in the recolonization of plant species at these sites despite the absence of edible fruit attractive to frugivorous birds on O. paniculata, a wind-dispersed species. The strong correlations between plant and invertebrate community composition and study-site age (r = 0.80, -0.24, -0.68 for plants, beetles, and spiders, respectively) suggest that the restoration site plant and invertebrate communities are undergoing change in the direction of the naturally regenerating and mature forest communities. Without restoration, colonization of grassland by forest plants is very slow in the study area and... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species invasions impose key biotic thresholds limiting the success of ecological restoration projects. These thresholds may be difficult to reverse and will have long-term consequences for restoration because of invasion legacies such as extinctions; because most invasive species cannot be eliminated given current technology and resources; and because even when controlled to low levels, invasive species continue to exert substantial pressure on native biodiversity. Restoration outcomes in the face of biological invasions are likely to be novel and will require long-term resource commitment, as any letup in invasive species management will result in the loss of the conservation gains achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We document a statistically significant difference in Hieracium pilosella inflorescence density and sheep grazing density in a high country property which supports the suggestion that grazing during flowering may reduce fecundity and seedling establishment of Hieracium species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resprouting is an important trait that allows plants to persist after fire and is considered a key functional trait in woody plants. While resprouting is well documented in fire-prone biomes, information is scarce in non-fire-prone ecosystems, such as New Zealand (NZ) forests. Our objective was to investigate patterns of post-fire resprouting in NZ by identifying the ability of species to resprout and quantifying the resprouting rates within the local plant community. Fire occurrence is likely to increase in NZ as a consequence of climate change, and this investigation addresses an important knowledge gap needed for planning restoration actions in fire-susceptible regions. The study was conducted in two phases: (1) A detailed review of the resprouting ability of the NZ woody flora, and (2) a field study where the post-fire responses of plants were quantified. The field study was undertaken in the eastern South Island, where woody plants (>5 cm diameter at 30 cm height) were sampled in 10 plots (10x10 m), five- and 10-months post-fire. The research synthesized the resprouting ability of 73 woody species and is the first to provide extensive quantitative data on resprouting in NZ. Most of the canopy dominant species were non-resprouters, but many smaller trees and shrubs were capable of resprouting, despite their evolution in an environment with low fire frequency. Species composition and abundance were important predictors of resprouting patterns among plots, with similar communities resulting in similar resprouting responses. Resprouting capacity provides species with a competitive advantage in the post-fire recovery. We suggest that it is possible to engineer more fire resilient restoration plantings by planting higher proportions of the resprouters identified in this study. The incorporation of resprouting as a trait in restoration plans is likely to be relevant not just in NZ, but also in other non-fire-prone regions facing increases in fire frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Editorial. Develops Richard Knight's arguments in a 1999 'Conservation Biology' editorial to identify issues that need to be addressed if conservation biology efforts are to successfully conserve indigenous biodiversity on private land, using New Zealand as a case study. Need for developing ways to better integrate indigenous biodiversity conservation with land uses; Challenge for conservation biologists.

The endemic New Zealand kauri trees (Agathis australis) are of major importance for the forests in the northern part of New Zealand. The mapping of kauri locations is required for the monitoring of the deadly kauri dieback disease (Phytophthora agathidicida (PTA)). In this study, we developed a method to identify kauri trees by optical remote sensing that can be applied in an area-wide campaign. Dead and dying trees were separated in one class and the remaining trees with no to medium stress symptoms were defined in the two classes "kauri" and "other". The reference dataset covers a representative selection of 3165 precisely located crowns of kauri and 21 other canopy species in the Waitakere Ranges west of Auckland. The analysis is based on an airborne hyperspectral AISA Fenix image (437–2337 nm, 1 m2 pixel resolution). The kauri spectra show characteristically steep reflectance and absorption features in the near-infrared (NIR) region with a distinct long descent at 1215 nm, which can be parameterised with a modified Normalised Water Index (mNDWI-Hyp). With a Jeffries–Matusita separability over 1.9, the kauri spectra can be well separated from 21 other canopy vegetation spectra. The Random Forest classifier performed slightly better than Support Vector Machine. A combination of the mNDWI-Hyp index with four additional spectral indices with three red to NIR bands resulted in an overall pixel-based accuracy (OA) of 91.7% for crowns larger 3 m diameter. While the user's and producer's accuracies for the class "kauri" with 94.6% and 94.8% are suitable for management purposes, the separation of "dead/dying trees" from "other" canopy vegetation poses the main challenge. The OA can be improved to 93.8% by combining "kauri" and "dead/dying" trees in one class, separate classifications for low and high forest stands and a binning to 10 nm bandwidths. Additional wavelengths and their respective indices only improved the OA up to 0.6%. The method developed in this study allows an accurate location of kauri trees for an area-wide mapping with a five-band multispectral sensor in a representative selection of forest ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the success of implementing ecological restoration projects managed by government and non-government agencies in New Zealand. Environmental programs could be found at these Web sites including www.nzern.org.nz from New Zealand Ecological Restoration Network, www.doc.govt.nz from the Department of Conservation and www.maungatrust.org from Maungatautari Ecological Island project. The author emphasized some important factors which would preserve endangered species.

Abstract: The composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) communities found in agricultural systems has been found to be very different to that of forest. The implications of this, if any, for the restoration of indigenous forest on ex-agricultural land is poorly understood. This study investigated the effect that AMF communities isolated from ex-agricultural and forest soils have on the growth of an indigenous New Zealand tree species (Podocarpus cunninghamii). The forest AMF community was isolated from a remnant stand of P. cunninghamii forest and the ex-agricultural AMF from a retired grazing grassland. In addition, the study examined how the two AMF communities affected the competitiveness of P. cunninghamii when grown in competition with an invasive grass species (Agrostis capillaris), which is frequently dominant on ex-agricultural land in New Zealand. P. cunninghamii growth was significantly decreased by inoculation with ex-agricultural AMF compared to forest AMF. Furthermore, the forest AMF community was able to significantly increase P. cunninghamii root production when in competition with A. capillaris. The findings suggest that when attempting to restore indigenous forest on ex-agricultural land, inoculation of tree seedlings with appropriate forest AMF may improve their growth and survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In New Zealand, 25% of the remaining indigenous vegetation cover is found on mixed livestock farms located predominantly in hill country. Despite evidence that adding natural capital stocks in the form of biodiversity enhancement is likely to increase the provision of ecosystem services on and off farmland, quantitative data are largely lacking. This research takes a case study approach to providing an evaluation of the implications of advancing a biodiversity enhancement programme on the financial and environmental performance of three mixed livestock farms across New Zealand. The research used a farm system optimisation model to quantify the effects of biodiversity enhancement on different aspects of the farm business. The three farms studied varied in size, geo-climatic zones, amount of indigenous vegetation and the size of the proposed biodiversity enhancement programme. Shifting even a small part of farmland from grazing to biodiversity enhancement affects farm system design, resulting in changes to the livestock policy, sale and purchase dates of livestock and the grazing management plan. These changes also affect farm revenue, Net Present Value and annuity, all of which declined by 3–9% across the three farms over the 10 years modelled. However, after implementation of the biodiversity enhancement programme, there was a small increase in the annuity per hectare grazed compared with the Base farm scenario for two of the three farms studied. The provision of other ecosystem services was quantified on one farm, and in sharp contrast, these increased, which included greenhouse gas regulation with additional C storage and decreased GHG emissions, and increased filtering and nutrient retention resulting in a reduction in N and P losses to water. Biodiversity enhancement on farm has the potential to improve aesthetics, increase sense of place, recreational and spiritual values and provision of other food products. The current study highlighted the fact that our current farm system models lack the capability to provide quantitative information on the provision of ecosystem services at the farm scale, and do not include all the natural resources across different areas of the farm. This should be a priority in the future. • In NZ, mixed livestock farms hold 25% of the remaining indigenous vegetation. • This case study investigates the implications of biodiversity enhancement on 3 farms. • Farm system optimisation was used to determine financial and environmental performance. • Biodiversity enhancement decreased profit NPV by 3–9% but increased profit/ha grazed. • Other ecosystem services increased including GHG regulation and nutrient retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compensating for biodiversity losses in 1 location by conserving or restoring biodiversity elsewhere (i.e., biodiversity offsetting) is being used increasingly to compensate for biodiversity losses resulting from development. We considered whether a form of biodiversity offsetting, enhancement offsetting (i.e., enhancing the quality of degraded natural habitats through intensive ecological management), can realistically secure additional funding to control biological invaders at a scale and duration that results in enhanced biodiversity outcomes. We suggest that biodiversity offsetting has the potential to enhance biodiversity values through funding of invasive species control, but it needs to meet 7 key conditions: be technically possible to reduce invasive species to levels that enhance native biodiversity; be affordable; be sufficiently large to compensate for the impact; be adaptable to accommodate new strategic and tactical developments while not compromising biodiversity outcomes; acknowledge uncertainties associated with managing pests; be based on an explicit risk assessment that identifies the cost of not achieving target outcomes; and include financial mechanisms to provide for in-perpetuity funding. The challenge then for conservation practitioners, advocates, and policy makers is to develop frameworks that allow for durable and effective partnerships with developers to realize the full potential of enhancement offsets, which will require a shift away from traditional preservation-focused approaches to biodiversity management., (© 2014 Society for Conservation Biology.)

Two process-based models were used to identify the environmental variables limiting productivity in a pristine, mature forest dominated by rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum Sol. ex Lamb.) trees in South Westland, New Zealand. A model of canopy net carbon uptake, incorporating routines for radiation interception, photosynthesis and water balance was used to determine a value for quantum efficiency when climate variables were not limiting. The annual net carbon uptake by the canopy was estimated to be 1.1 kg C m(-2) and the quantum efficiency 22.6 mmol mol quanta(-1). This value of quantum efficiency, combined with other parameters obtainable from the literature, was then used in a model of forest productivity (3-PG), to simulate changes in net productivity and the allocation of carbon to tree components. The model was adjusted to match a measured stem increment of 10.6 Mg ha(-1) over a period of 13 years. To achieve this while maintaining a low, but stable value for leaf area index, it was necessary to set the site fertility rating very low and select high values for the parameters describing the proportional allocation of total carbon to roots. This approach highlighted nutrient availability as the principal constraint on productivity for the ecosystem and identified critical measurements that will be necessary for using the model to predict the effects of climate change on carbon sequestration. The low rates of carbon uptake and productivity are consistent with the low nutrient supply available from the highly leached, acid soils, most likely attributable to frequent saturation and a very shallow aerobic zone.