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The presence of many pathogens varies in a predictable manner with latitude, with infections decreasing from the equator towards the poles. We investigated the geographic trends of pathogens infecting a widely distributed carnivore: the gray wolf (Canis lupus). Specifically, we investigated which variables best explain and predict geographic trends in seroprevalence across North American wolf populations and the implications of the underlying mechanisms. We compiled a large serological dataset of nearly 2000 wolves from 17 study areas, spanning 80° longitude and 50° latitude. Generalized linear mixed models were constructed to predict the probability of seropositivity of four important pathogens: canine adenovirus, herpesvirus, parvovirus, and distemper virus—and two parasites: Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii. Canine adenovirus and herpesvirus were the most widely distributed pathogens, whereas N. caninum was relatively uncommon. Canine parvovirus and distemper had high annual variation, with western populations experiencing more frequent outbreaks than eastern populations. Seroprevalence of all infections increased as wolves aged, and denser wolf populations had a greater risk of exposure. Probability of exposure was positively correlated with human density, suggesting that dogs and synanthropic animals may be important pathogen reservoirs. Pathogen exposure did not appear to follow a latitudinal gradient, with the exception of N. caninum. Instead, clustered study areas were more similar: wolves from the Great Lakes region had lower odds of exposure to the viruses, but higher odds of exposure to N. caninum and T. gondii; the opposite was true for wolves from the central Rocky Mountains. Overall, mechanistic predictors were more informative of seroprevalence trends than latitude and longitude. Individual host characteristics as well as inherent features of ecosystems determined pathogen exposure risk on a large scale. This work emphasizes the importance of biogeographic wildlife surveillance, and we expound upon avenues of future research of cross-species transmission, spillover, and spatial variation in pathogen infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Correction to: I Scientific Reports i https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81192-w, published online 12 February 2021 Heather Fenton was omitted from the author list in the original version of this Article. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. Financial support includes: E.E.B. and P.J.H. endowment from Verne Willaman; E.E.B. and P.C.C. U.S. Geological Survey (Grant G17AC00427); D.W.S., D.R.S., and D.R.M. NSF LTREB grant DEB-1245373 and many donors to Yellowstone Forever, especially Annie and Bob Graham and Valerie Gates; M.H. Parks Canada and NSF LTREB award 1556248; G.R. Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Program and the State of Alaska general funds; K.B. Federal Aid in Support of Wildlife Restoration and Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game; M.A. and H.S. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, Habitat Conservation Trust Foundation, Forest Enhancement Society of British Columbia; D.R.M and M.A. Polar Continental Shelf Project and National Geographic Society; M.L.J.G. the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health under award number NIH T32OD010993; T.W. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry; B.L.B. National Park Service; A.K. GNWT Environmental Stewardship Fund. [Extracted from the article]

We know much about pathogen evolution and the emergence of new disease strains, but less about host resistance and how it is signaled to other individuals and subsequently maintained. The cline in frequency of black-coated wolves ( Canis lupus ) across North America is hypothesized to result from a relationship with canine distemper virus (CDV) outbreaks. We tested this hypothesis using cross-sectional data from wolf populations across North America that vary in the prevalence of CDV and the allele that makes coats black, longitudinal data from Yellowstone National Park, and modeling. We found that the frequency of CDV outbreaks generates fluctuating selection that results in heterozygote advantage that in turn affects the frequency of the black allele, optimal mating behavior, and black wolf cline across the continent.