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Introduction: People's understanding of bladder stones has a long history. Since around the sixth century BC, surgery has been selected as the most specialized and last treatment and has continuously evolved. Meanwhile, many missing links have sometimes been a turning point in bladder stone surgery. The efforts of Iranian medicine scholars in advancing this treatment method are part of the impressive ups and downs of this path, which is discussed in this research., Methods: This review research is based on Persian medicine sources, such as Al-Hawi fi al-Tabb, The Kitāb al-Taṣrīf, and Al-Qanun fi al-Tebb. It has also used reliable databases such as Pub Med, Scopus, and Elsevier, as well as search engines such as Google Scholar, with related keywords., Results: Surgery as the last treatment method for bladder stones was first proposed in the Golden Age (800-1300AD) of Persian traditional medicine by Ali ibn Rabben Tabari (810-895 AD) and Rhazes (865-925 AD), who discussed it in more detail. Then Hally Abbas, Albucasis, and Avicenna completed and enriched it. Albucasis's role is imposing due to his unique techniques in perineal cystolithotomy, forceps to extract bladder stones, and primary lithotrity until the nineteenth century., Conclusion: Examining the evolution and progress of bladder stone treatment shows the efforts of physicians in different medical schools. The brilliance of the sages of Persian Medicine, who invented seven different types of bladder stone surgery, improved the techniques of the predecessors and created a significant leap in the progress of this surgery.

The initial descriptions of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have been a topic of discussion. Cases of persistent diarrhea have been documented as far back as ancient Greece, with even Hippocrates (∼ 460-370 BCE) exploring various potential causes of diarrhea. Persian medicine was the predominant medical practice in the Eurasia region until the 18th century and had roots in Hippocrates and the ancient civilization of the region. Scholars, such as Avicenna (980-1025 CE), extensively described a disease characterized by intestinal ulcers, bloody diarrhea, and abdominal pain in the early medieval period. While some of the definitions and etiologies of IBD in Persian medicine are based on humoral theories that differ from current medical concepts, recent studies have suggested a potential relationship between the traditional Persian medicine understanding of the disease and IBD. Persian medicine classifies patients with specific diseases into different types of disorders known as dystemperament, with the application of these differences referred to as "syndrome differentiation." These traditional classifications require distinct therapeutic approaches. Research has delved into the molecular bases of the humoral theory and the impact of syndrome differentiation on drug selection for patients, including those with IBD. However, further research is needed to explore the potential effectiveness of Persian medicine in treating IBD and to understand how this ancient classification system can contribute to improved disease management., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Introduction: This study reevaluates the historical origins of occlusion therapy for amblyopia, focusing on the contributions of the 9th-century Islamic scholar, Ali ibn Sahl ibn Rabban al-Tabari (838-870 CE)., Methods: The investigation delved into al-Tabari's writings, particularly "Firdous al-Hikma," to extract insights into his approach to addressing reduced vision in one eye.Additionally, the study examined subsequent advancements in occlusion therapy by scholars such as Thabit ibn Qurrah and Rhazes, building upon al-Tabari'sfoundational work., Results: Al-Tabari's reports contain significant insights into occlusion therapy for amblyopia, predating commonly attributed origins of the treatment. Within "Firdous al-Hikma," he outlines methods for addressing reduced vision, advocating for the covering of the healthier eye to promote the function of the weaker eye. These findings highlight the pioneering efforts of al-Tabari and his contemporaries in the Islamic civilization and challenge the conventional narrative surrounding the history of occlusion therapy. Subsequent advancements by scholars such as Thabit ibn Qurrah and Rhazes expanded upon al-Tabari's work, advocating for similar therapeutic approaches within the Islamic civilization. Their contributions further solidified the practice of occlusion therapy, laying the groundwork for its continued evolution and refinement in subsequent centuries., Discussion: Al-Tabari's contributions to occlusion therapy underscore the rich heritage of scientific inquiry in theIslamic civilization during the medieval period. This historical perspective sheds light on the diverse contributions to medical knowledge and practice outside of Western contexts and emphasizes the importance of recognizing and honoring these contributions in the broader history of medicine.

Background: The diagnosis and treatment of spine disorders have been challenging for thousands of years in different nations and medical schools. Despite this long history, there are many information gaps in this regard. The current research deals with the milestones and progress of spine surgery from ancient times until now, emphasizing the innovations of sages in the Persian traditional medicine era., Methods: The present study is based on searching original and library documents, data from databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Science Direct, and search engines such as Google Scholar., Results: In Persian traditional medicine, Rhazes (865-925 AD) was the first sage who applied spine surgery based on the innovative knowledge of Galen (second century AD) and Paulus Aegineta (seventh century AD). Hally Abbas (tenth century AD), by suturing two separated bones during spine surgery, and Albucasis (936-1013 AD), by inventing, describing, and drawing the surgical instruments involved in surgeries in this area, and also using cauterization in the treatment of children's hunchback, were the innovators of new methods., Conclusion: The modern knowledge of spine surgery is based on intelligent experiences and prominent thoughts from thousands of years worldwide. However, sometimes, these key points have remained hidden. This issue necessitates investigating this science in different schools and territories for comparative studies, identifying the firsts in the prominent points of this field, preserving the identity of sages and nations, and preventing scientific plagiarism.

Antique traditional medical theories created by old medical doctrines and their historical background have been significantly mentioned today by medical historian scholars. Persia and India had many interactions in different perspectives, such as knowledge, religion, and traditions. One of the most considerable aspects of the relationship between Indians and Persians is the transmission of basic theories of their medical doctrines. As it is reported in many historical texts from the first ages of the Islamic era in Iran, a large number of medical texts were gathered from contiguous civilizations in Iran by order of the Abbasid Caliph. They were then translated into Arabic, Syriac, and Persian. So, Persian physicians and authors used them that way. One of the earlier physicians who reflected the viewpoints of Indian medicine in his famous medical textbook entitled "Paradise of Wisdom" is Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (3rd century A.H./9th century A.D.). Persian physicians in the Islamic golden age (8th to 16th A.D.) played an astonishing role in the development of medical knowledge in several aspects through physician innovations and expression and evaluation of different ideas about medicine. In this regard, some of the Indian medical theories were expressed by a famous Persian physician, Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was a Persian physician of the 3rd century A.H./9th century A.D. He wrote the book Firdous al-Hikmah (or Paradise of Wisdom), the first encyclopedia of Islamic medicine in Iran. The book introduces and describes the basics and therapeutic procedures adopted in Indian medicine, along with procedures of Persian and Greek medical doctrines, by discussing the basic medical theories in these three doctrines. In this paper, we discuss the reflection of traditional Indian medicine as described in Firdous al-Hikmah and its influence on later medical texts.

Reviewing ancient manuscripts of Persian medicine (PM) reveals that there have been some basic principles for decision-making in epidemic infectious diseases that existed in the past. These PM rules for clinical reasoning were applied through a personalized approach along with public health advice in such situations. Currently, the coronavirus pandemic has been the biggest problem in the world. Its mainstay of treatment is based on preventative measures and symptomatic treatments. Meanwhile, traditional medical systems for providing preventive, supportive, and rehabilitative care to patients have received more attention than before. Thus, the specific individual approach considered by PM scholars for clinical courses of epidemic infectious diseases may help shed more light on the spread of knowledge on epidemic diseases in ancient Persia.

Sweet almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb) is a known nut, which has long been used in several ethnomedical systems, especially in Persian medicine (PM) for its nutritional and therapeutic activities. In this study, we aimed to provide a summary on traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of sweet almond. Thus, we reviewed textbooks of PM and electronic literature on traditional medicine. Moreover, the available data on the usage of sweet almond were searched in electronic databases to find articles on its pharmacological properties and phytochemistry. According to phytochemical investigations, this plant contains macronutrients, micronutrients, essential oils, various phenolic compounds, and phytosterols. Current pharmacological studies represent that Prunus dulcis has several biological activities including prebiotic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, cardiometabolic protection, nootropic, anxiolytic, sedative-hypnotic, and nervous-improving effects. Further clinical trials and meta-analysis are required to draw a definitive conclusion on the efficacy and therapeutic activities of almond., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Aim: Artificial rupture of the amniotic membranes during the labor, which is called amniotomy, is a common procedure in modern obstetric and midwifery protocols. There is no definite agreement regarding the timing of amniotomy in a delayed labor. In this study, we have discussed the history of amniotomy in medieval Persia mentioning the Persian medicine recommendations in this regard., Methods: We studied main Persian medicine textbooks such as Canon of Medicine by Avicenna to investigate the history of labor management and amniotomy indications. In addition, amniotomy in current literature was studied using PubMed and Google Scholar databases., Results: Persian medicine has recommended artificial rupture of membranes for labor augmentation based on its own theories. Methods for facilitation of the labor have been divided into two groups: one group before and the other during the labor. Avicenna has carefully explained the indication of amniotomy. He has recommended artificial rupture of membranes in cases of intact membranes with cervical dilatation and fetal descent. A needle or a kind of surgical knife called Mabzaa had been introduced for this procedure., Conclusions: It seems that Iranian physicians are the first scholars who have introduced the amniotomy for labor management in the 11th century. Persian medicine recommendations for labor facilitation should be considered in future studies., (© 2020 Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology.)

Introduction Mizaj or temperament is a main concept in Persian Medicine (PM), which the process of diagnosis, treatment and preventive prescriptions are developed based on it. In this study, the articles written on the concept of Mizaj were reviewed. Method Credited electronic resources, including Pubmed, Scopus, Cochrane Library and web-of-science were searched using keywords Temperament, Mizaj, Mizadj, Midzaj and Mezaj (with the concept of Mizaj in Persian and/or Greek medicine). Search results were limited to English articles, published in 1995-2017. The articles in which temperament had the psychoanalytic aspect or was based on Ayurveda or Chinese/Korean medicine were removed. A team of four PM experts evaluated the method and the results. Results Among the total of 32 articles were published in this field, 14 were review articles, 2 were on animal subject, 14 were on human subject and 2 were surveys for designing questionnaire for people's Mizaj assessment. Most of review studies were just new versions of ancient Persian texts translated into English and the innovations on the subject were few. Studies on animal subject and developing questionnaires were also limited. In some human studies, use of standard questionnaires and homogenous methodology in Mizaj assessment was not considered. Conclusions It seems that studies on temperaments have increased in the past few years but are still at the forefront. In human studies a homogenous method for evaluating temperament has not been used and some of them failed to address the main concept of Mizaj in PM. Therefore, it is necessary to use the original category of Mizaj and to design standard method.

In the early medieval era, in the time which is called the Islamic Golden Age, medicine flourished through the practice of Persian physicians (9th to 12th century AD). Abu-Sahl al-Masihi (died circa 1010 AD) was one of the physicians in that period who had great influence on the progress of medicine by his own writings as well as his influence on great scholars like Biruni and Avicenna as their teacher. He was a polymath and had many writings in various fields of science, in particular medical sciences. Some of his manuscripts in medicine were Al-Mia fil-Tibb (Book of the Hundred), Kitab al-Teb al-Koli (The General Medicine), Ezhar al-Hekmat Allah Ta'ala fi Khalgh al-Ensan (God's Mystery on the Creation of Man), Resalat al-Adwiya (Treatise of Drugs), Osool Elm Nabz (the Principles of Pulse), and Resala f ī Taḥqiq Amral-Waba' (On the determination of the matter of infectious diseases). As a sign of his impact in Persian medicine, many later physicians (until 19th century) referred to and cited his works in their manuscripts several times.

Objectives: The major problem in maintenance treatment of opioid use disorder is craving and relapse. The utilization of herbal compounds and complementary therapy for treatment of disease and addiction has been widely expanding. Considering the significant effect of Hab-o Shefa in detoxification phase, this clinical trial has explored the influence of this compound on maintenance treatment of opioid-dependent patients. This product is made of four herbs, including Datura stramonium L., Rheum palmatum L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Acacia senegal L. Design: The authors conducted a two-group parallel randomized double-blind clinical trial on 81 opioid-dependent patients within 12 weeks. After medically assisted detoxification, participants were assigned randomly to Hab-o Shefa ( n  = 41) and placebo ( n  = 40). Outcome measures included craving assessed by craving beliefs questionnaire, self-reported opioid use, and lapse (any opioid-positive urine test) according to urinalysis and addiction severity index-lite questionnaire, retention in treatment, and depression and anxiety scores on the Hamilton's anxiety and depression scales. Results: Forty-one participants completed the study for 12 weeks, 21 subjects in the drug group and 20 subjects in the placebo group. The rates of opioid-positive urine tests and self-reported opioid use were significantly lower in Hab-o Shefa group ( f  = 8.41, p  = 0.001). Hab-o Shefa also indicated a significant superiority over placebo in the effect of treatment by time interaction for craving ( f  = 5.91, p  = 0.001), depression ( f  = 3.40, p  = 0.01), and anxiety ( f  = 2.58, p  = 0.035). The retention time was 66.6 days for drug group and 59.6 days for placebo one. Although the causes for dropping out in two groups were different, there was no significant difference ( p  = 0.623). The side effects of the two groups were not significantly different. Conclusion: Results indicated that Hab-o Shefa could be useful for opioid maintenance treatment, and it can also be considered as a new promising drug for prevention of craving and relapse.

Galen (129-199 A.D.), an ancient Greek scholar, is one of the most influential and recognized physicians and surgeons in the history of medicine. He is one of the most influential Greek scholar in Persian medicine, who has been repeatedly cited by Iranian scholars. The purpose of this article is to describe the exact position of Galen in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, the most important work of Persian medicine. In The Canon of Medicine, Galen is cited about 300 times, and Avicenna always admired and praised Galen repeatedly. Galen's ideas were important to Avicenna, but there are also many elements of Galen's views that Avicenna challenged or criticized. For example, Avicenna diverged from Galen's philosophical view in medicine and rejected some of Galen's pharmaceutical opinions and Galen's views on the physiology of pain, the physiology of pulse, the same nature of the tendons and nerves and separation of the mind and body. Although the views of Greek scholars, especially Galen, in The Canon of Medicine have been quoted abundantly, Avicenna revised the knowledge of the ancient scholars through critical thinking and relying on observation and testing, systematized the science of medicine and introduced many ideas and innovations. As such, Europeans considered Avicenna as the most prominent physician of the Islamic Golden Age., (Copyright © 2019 Shanghai Changhai Hospital. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), dementia is a disorder that occurs as result of a neurodegenerative process in brain, and usually is chronic or progressive by nature. Most descriptions of senile dementia date back to Alois Alzheimer. In 1906, Alzheimer described the first patient, Auguste Deter, who suffered from the disorder that later became known as Alzheimer's disease. Although, the history of the disease before 1906 is quite rich, little has been said about the contributions of ancient and medieval physicians to the understanding of dementia. Over the centuries, the concept of senile dementia changed from an inevitable mental decline with aging, to different sets of clinical features with narrow limits of diagnosis of a disease in its own right. Documentation of the historical origins of prevention, diagnosis, and therapies of dementia would make an important contribution to a more complete understanding of this pathological degeneration of dementia. The present review focuses on the contributions of Avicenna (AD 980-1037) to the development of diagnosis and the discovery of etiology of different forms of dementia, with the goal of revealing the extent to which dementia was understood in the golden age of Islam in Persia.

For several centuries, opium addiction has been a social problem all over the world. It has been prevalent in Iran from the Safavid era (1501-1736 A.D). During this period, Hakim Imad al-Din Mahmud ibn-Mas'ud Shirazi (1515-1592 A.D), also known as Imad was one of the Persian physicians who wrote one of the earliest books in the field of opium and addiction (called Afiounieh) in history. In this book, he introduced two sustained release rectal (suppository) and oral (pill) dosage forms for Muslim addicts who fast in the month of Ramadan. He aimed to formulate them for these people so that they could keep fasting by using the slow release drugs. In these formulations, his innovation has important impacts in the history of both addiction and pharmaceutical sciences.

An increase in the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) as a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder is an almost obvious issue in the world. Researches on natural products for finding effective drugs to prevent the disease are in progress. There is special attention to the three types of nuts including almond, hazelnut and walnut in manuscripts of traditional Persian medicine (PM) as the preventive agents against brainatrophy and memory loss. The purpose of this study is a pharmacological review of their bioactive constituents and introducing the value of these nuts as the effective supplements and natural medicinal foods in AD patients. Databases including PubMed and ScienceDirect were searched in title, abstract and keywords from year 2000 to present for AD-related researches on these tree nuts, their major phytochemicals and their mechanisms of action. As result, almond, hazelnut and walnut provide macronutrients, micronutrients, and phytochemicals which affect several pathways in AD pathogenesis such as amyloidogenesis, tau phosphorylation, oxidative stress, cholinergic pathways, and some non-target mechanisms including cholesterol lowering and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as effect on neurogenesis. These nuts are recommended in PM for their brain-protective activity and particularly reversing brain atrophy in case of hazelnut. The therapeutical statements of PM scholars mentioned in their books are based on their clinical observations with support of a long history of experiences. Beyond the molecular activities attributed to the phytochemicals, the use of these tree nuts could be more considered in scientific researches as the effective nutrients for prevention or even management of AD., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The spleen has been one of the least understood major organs for centuries. Its significance is relatively well-known today but it seems that all aspects of its activities are not fully understood. Persian medicine (PM) has special views on the function of spleen; many side effects were reported in PM due to spleen dysfunction. On the other hand nowadays splenectomy as a treatment strategy is recommended for some disorders and increasing risk of infections is considered as the most important long term side effect of that. In this study, we hypothesize that splenectomy may have more side effects than currently proven. According to PM, spleen is in close connection with liver, cardiovascular system, stomach, bone, brain and skin, and that is why any kind of spleen dysfunction leads to change in blood viscosity, appetite and bone strength, liver dysfunction, mood and skin disorders, cancer formation and fever. Considering this viewpoint it can be hypothesized such side effects may also occur after splenectomy. Proven complications of splenectomy include hypercoagulated state, cardiovascular events and infectious diseases but there is also some evidence about increased risk of cancer, skin disease like systemic lupus erythematosus, mood disorder such as depression, defective bone formation and impairment of immunity which can be considered as different levels of evidence to confirm the hypothesis. But for some others such as changes in appetite, there are no studies let alone convincing evidence. Future research about theses possible complications may lead to novel results., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Spinal Traumas have been categorized as disabling diseases that cause irretrievable personal and social problems. Having conducted a rather comprehensive diagnosis of the anatomy of the backbone and spinal cord as well as their functions, Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980-1037) stated the levels and kinds of spinal impairments that are caused by spinal traumas in his great masterpiece Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine). He also based his treatment process on his etiological diagnosis of such impairments. Avicenna had used the following methods to treat spinal traumas: food and drug therapy and regimental therapies such as massage, phlebotomy, cupping, dry sauna, and surgery. The authors of the present article review the bases of Avicenna's viewpoints regarding spinal traumas and their treatment., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)