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Current land-use practices in the Lugait watershed, Misamis Oriental, Philippines, play a significant role in the local economy, but they may also pose a threat to biodiversity and watershed health. This study aimed to evaluate the forest health in relation to the overall watershed condition of the said locality. Three representative sites (Barangay Kaluknayan, Upper Talacogon, and Poblacion) were chosen based on elevation. Floral assessment employed the Point-Center-Quarter-Method (PCQM). Fauna assessed included bats, birds, and hepetofauna. Soil sampling and analysis of chemical properties were conducted. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) dominated the watershed with an importance value of 199%. Fauna across sites were mostly common, adaptable species. Forested areas had medium organic matter, while agricultural lands (corn, pineapple) ranged from medium-low to low. Coconut plantations maintained medium organic matter. Both forest and agricultural lands had medium to high phosphorus content. Available potassium was sufficient in both areas. Land-use changes, particularly deforestation for cropland, led to decreased soil pH. The dominance of coconut plantations and conversion of forest to cropland highlight the need for diversified agricultural practices and sustainable management strategies. While fauna appear adaptable, biodiversity monitoring remains crucial. The declining soil pH warrants further investigation into potential long-term impacts on plant growth and water quality. This study emphasizes the importance of integrating ecological considerations into land-use planning to ensure long-term environmental and economic sustainability for the watershed and its communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bukidnon, situated in the Philippines, boasts rich biodiversity owing to its diverse ecosystems, including forests, grasslands, and agricultural lands. However, rapid urbanization, agricultural expansion, deforestation, land selling and conversion and mining activities have significantly impacted its biodiversity. This paper examines the current status of biodiversity in Bukidnon, identifies key conservation challenges, and proposes strategies for sustainable development that prioritize biodiversity conservation. Drawing upon existing literature and case studies, this research underscores the importance of integrating conservation efforts with socioeconomic development initiatives to achieve long-term sustainability in Bukidnon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mining is always associated with deforestation and destruction of forest and agricultural land. Though it offers employment and governments' income, it still causes detrimental effects to the environment. The re-opening of open-pit mining corporation in 2011, in the small village of Bato-Bato, Narra, Palawan Philippines aggravated deforestation, floods, and decreased in rice yield of rice farmers. This study determined the Cobalt content in topsoil in mine-tailing sites within the rice farms. Field data collection and laboratory analysis methods were used in this study. This study utilized three sampling sites and three replications per site and 2 kg of topsoil from each replication per sampling site were collected following the quadrant method. The soil samples were sent to the laboratory for analysis. Cobalt content in topsoil was analyzed using Xray Flourescence (XRF) method. Normality of data was determined by Pearson Coefficient of Skewness (PCS) Test. Significant difference on the Cobalt content in topsoil was analyzed using F- Test and appropriate post hoc test. The Cobalt content in topsoil in three sampling sites is high (from 146.7 mg/kg to 306.7 mg/kg) in comparison with the average Cobalt content a topsoil should contain (41 mg/kg). High Cobalt content affects rice productivity. Mining operator should prioritize projects that prevent leaching of mining sediments during flood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The island of Mindanao in the southern Philippines has the richest herpetofauna presently documented for any one island in the archipelago, although many regions on the island are yet to be explored. Limestone karst habitats, in particular, are poorly surveyed and are also the most threatened ecosystems in the Philippines. We conducted field surveys on the herpetofauna of Mount Capistrano, a low-elevation limestone karst habitat and an ecotourism destination in the central Mindanao Province of Bukidnon. Our study is the first biodiversity assessment of the area. We recorded a total of 32 species consisting of 10 frogs, nine lizards, and 13 snakes. Nine are Philippine endemic species, whereas seven are found only in the Mindanao faunal region. Three are invasive alien species. We also provide preliminary information on a putative new species of limestone frog of the genus Platymantis. Our study shows that despite disturbance, limestone karst forests in Mindanao harbor significant levels of herpetofaunal species richness, including undiscovered micro-endemics. This study reinforces the biological significance of karst habitats and the critical need to conduct comprehensive biodiversity inventories of this unique, naturally patchily distributed, and highly threatened ecosystem throughout the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-scale studies combining information on policy instruments and on drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are key to design and implement effective forest protection measures. We investigated the scale and country dependency of stakeholder perceptions about future threats to tropical forests (e.g. agriculture, logging, woodfuel) and preferred policy instruments (e.g. reforestation, protected areas, combat illegal logging), by interviewing 224 representatives of forest-related institutions. We conducted analysis of variance and principal component analysis for eighteen variables across three countries (Zambia, Ecuador and the Philippines) and four spatial levels (from international to local). We found that the overall alertness about commercial drivers and the confidence in policy instruments are significantly lower at subnational levels and also in Zambia. Stakeholder expectations about the most important drivers and the most effective policies in the coming decade follow regional narratives, suggesting that there are no one-size-fits-all solutions in international forest policy. However, we found an unexpected consensus across scales, indicating potential for collaboration between institutions operating at different geographical levels. Overall, agriculture remains the driver with the highest expected influence (43%), while a strong favoritism for reforestation and forest restoration (38%) suggests a paradigm shift from protected areas to a stronger focus on integrative approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippines, home to over 20,000 endemic species of plants and animals, is facing a biodiversity crisis due to the constant decrease of forest cover. The Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) approach was developed to conserve species threatened with extinction using a site-based conservation strategy to select globally important sites using threshold-based criteria for species irreplaceability and vulnerability. This study investigates the applicability of remotely sensed data through geospatial analysis to quantify forest cover loss of the 101 terrestrial KBAs in the country between 2001 and 2019. Results showed that the study sites had 4.5 million hectares (ha) of forest in the year 2000. However, these sites have lost about 270,000 ha of forest in nearly two decades, marking a steady decline with an annual deforestation rate of 14,213 ha per year in these terrestrial KBAs. The majority of the study sites (58) had a high percentage of forest loss (>3.13%), and these should be prioritized for conservation. By the year 2030, it is forecast that a total of 331 thousand ha of forest will be lost unless there is a transformational change in the country’s approach to dealing with deforestation. The results of this study provide relevant data and information in forest habitat in near real-time monitoring to assess the impact and effectiveness of forest governance and approaches within these critical habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of key areas for conservation and protection according to science-based evidence is an important component to circumvent the negative impacts of environmental changes within geopolitical territories and across the globe. Priority areas for biodiversity played an important role to ensure the protection of many species particularly those that are unique and threatened. There are more than 200 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in the Philippines, yet many important research and biodiversity data are either unpublished or unconsolidated. Birds are commonly studied indicators for KBA identification due to their high species richness, diversity, and sensitivity to forest ecosystems. By combining data from past and present surveys, we accounted for a total of 148 bird species of 51 families, with 20 new records from recent field surveys. Our analysis showed a high level of endemism within Mt. Hilong-hilong with 36% Philippine endemic, 14% restricted to Mindanao faunal region and 11% migrant. In terms of conservation, 8% of the species were considered in threatened categories. The species richness and endemism were higher in lowland to mid-elevation areas compared to higher elevation areas of the KBA. Endemism (i.e., Mindanao endemic) and increasing body mass were important determinants of binary extinction risk for bird species in Mt. Hilonghilong. The high biodiversity in Mt. Hilong-hilong indicates an example of the vital role of KBAs in preserving nationally and globally important bird species. Lastly, we emphasise the importance of collaboration and integrating past and present information to synthesise relevant information to complement ongoing conservation efforts in Mt. Hilong-hilong and other key habitats in the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The forests of Southeast Asia are represented as increasingly 'at-risk' to fire, constituting a regional fire politics concerned with the management and organisation of environmental blame. State governments often place culpability for this increasing flammability on histories of deforestation that disproportionately blame Indigenous peoples who now face a correspondingly large burden in conservation schemes. By tracing the history of fire management from the colonial period to the 1980s, this paper explores how the management of forests and fire in the Philippines has been shaped over time with imperatives to govern and economically exploit upland spaces. While these histories clearly point to a political economy of knowledge production, they also show how forest governance in the Philippines has worked to construct ethnic difference through policies and practices that naturalise livelihoods, spaces and qualities to essentialised 'tribal' uplanders. To understand the contemporary geography of blame that surrounds forest fires and deforestation in the Philippines and Southeast Asia more broadly, we argue for a more nuanced examination of 'the uplands' as a post-colonial geography co-constituted with the historical production of indigeneity and environmental knowledge. We conclude by emphasising the historical role of colonial forest and land management institutions in fashioning lasting socio-spatial differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) is a charismatic species that is threatened by illegal hunting and deforestation. Although they occur in forest and disturbed habitats, ecological information about them is still considerably lacking, which consequently hampers our ability to effectively protect tarsiers from further endangerment. Here, we characterized a 36-ha forest fragment in Mindanao Island where a population of tarsiers persist, and assessed the factors that could have influenced their distribution within the area. We sampled trees (> 1 cm DBH) within 10 × 10-m sampling plots (N = 54), which were established within 1-ha grids (N = 32) and locations where tarsiers were captured (N = 22). The habitat was characterized as a regenerating forest over limestone, with a generally homogeneous structure in terms of tree species richness, abundance, mean DBH, and height. In both sampling plots, we found an abundance of trees below 5 cm in DBH (> 50%) and between 2.6 and 5 m in height (> 40%), which, accordingly, the tarsiers appeared to prefer to use when foraging or sleeping. Lianas were among the most important features of the forest, possibly being a keystone structure in such habitats. Community assemblage, species richness, and mean height of trees, as well as distance to the forest edge, were found to be significant factors that influenced tarsier distribution in the fragment. Our study provides basic yet critical information on the habitat and ecology of Philippine tarsiers in Mindanao, and highlights the importance of forest fragments with rich flora diversity to the survival of the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the year 2010, a century of rapid decline in Philippine forest cover was reversed due to a deliberate National Greening Program (NGP). Drivers that can sustain or counter this increase can be better investigated through the help of land change models. However, such models are not yet in mainstream use for planning in the Philippines. Hence, this study used two models – FOREST-SAGE and GEOMOD – to simulate forest conditions based on anthropogenic drivers and to evaluate model applicability in the Philippines. The performance of each model was assessed using the root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), Kappa, national average tree cover percentage, and common deforestation hotspots with reference datasets. Validation with Climate Change Initiative Land Cover dataset (CCI-LC) yielded similar results between the models: 2015 tree cover maps with RMSE of 22–25% tree cover, MAE of 10–12% tree cover, and moderate agreement with reference map based on Kappa (0.4–0.6); and 2010–2015 change maps with RMSE of 8–9% tree cover, MAE of 1–2% tree cover, and agreement due to chance based on Kappa (0.01–0.03). Validation with MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer-Vegetation Continuous Field (MODIS-VCF) maps yielded similar MAE results (10% tree cover) between the models. Validating FOREST-SAGE end-time and change maps with MODIS-VCF yielded better RMSE results than GEOMOD (RMSE of 13% tree cover for FOREST-SAGE; 22% tree cover for GEOMOD). However, GEOMOD tree cover maps yielded better Kappa than FOREST-SAGE (0.60 for GEOMOD; 0.01 for FOREST-SAGE). Results suggest that FOREST-SAGE is more applicable in the Philippines for provincial extent studies that aim to quantitively track forest cover change, while GEOMOD is more applicable for national extent studies that use categorical data. Results also suggest that input parameter settings must be improved to simulate spatial distribution of forest cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its small share of 0.15% in the global market, the oil palm production in the Philippines is being contested with environmental issues on continued deforestation, increased emissions from illegal burning of trees, and the marginalization of indigenous communities. As a developing industry, there is a need to further conduct of social and environmental impact studies to gain more acceptance, thereby, pursue growth and expansion. In view of the environmental concerns, this study aimed to conduct a life cycle assessment of the crude oil palm with North Cotabato, Philippines as the case study. Using cradle to gate approach, the potential environmental impacts were established: non-renewable energy of 0.394 MJ/kg oil, carbon footprint of 1.150 kgCO2/kg oil, ozone creation potential of 2.429×10-3 kg NOx /kg oil, acidification potential of 0.0138×10-3 kg SO2 /kg oil and water footprint of 5,797.3 L/kg oil. Compared to six locations in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, the environmental impacts and performance of the oil palm production in North Cotabato were satisfactory given the same topographical conditions. Opportunities to mitigate and decrease the impacts were also identified, namely improving oil extraction rates; increasing ratio of shell as biomass fuel; prudent application of nitrogen fertilizers and optimizing delivery loads and schedules. The results of this study can be a reference for future environmental assessments in other locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While studies on deforestation of protected areas (PAs) have been conducted in many parts of the world, no comparative study has been done over an entire country in the tropics. Thus, we conducted a country-wide assessment of forest cover loss in all terrestrial protected areas of the Philippines, covering 198 PAs with a total area of 4.68 million ha. This study utilised Hansen's Landsat-derived global maps of forest cover change from 2000 to 2012, with tree canopy cover data for 2000 as the base year. Correlation and logistic regression analyses were employed to determine the significance and magnitude of the relationships between forest cover and 11 predictor variables. The assessment of forest loss reveals that the terrestrial protected areas are generally effective in reducing forest loss. Over the 12-year period, the average rate (2.59%) of forest clearing in protected areas is marginally lower by 0.1% than the entire country (2.69%). Within the same duration, the average forest loss rate within the 2-km buffer zones of selected protected areas is 1.4 times of those inside PAs. However, there was a significant number of PAs with phenomenal forest cover loss in terms of extent (48,583 ha over 12 years) and rate (up to 21%). We found that spatial predictor variables included in this study have weak or no relationships with forest cover, and hence they are not reliable inputs for predictive modelling. Comprehensive assessments of deforestation are needed at the micro-scale (e.g. single PA level) level and relatively shorter historical timeframe (e.g. less than a decade), to generate useful information for policy formulation, planning, and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective policy instruments are needed to halt or even reverse ongoing tropical deforestation. In this context, the increased focus on incentive-based instruments on the one hand and the unchanged support for classical command and control measures on the other, call for smart policy mixes. We aim to identify the effectiveness of policy instruments and of policy mixes based on stakeholder perceptions. We also aim to analyze stakeholders' power in order to appraise the relevance of different instruments on national forest policy agendas. Our study implements related research based on more than 100 key informant interviews along the pantropical country-context of Ecuador, Philippines and Zambia. Principal component analysis is applied to identify forest policy mixes, and social network analysis to quantify stakeholder power. Our results show that despite recent discussions and support for incentive-based mechanisms like REDD+ and market-based solutions, regulative instruments are equally advocated. There is an astonishing congruence in the support of national stakeholders for specific policy instruments like reforestation subsidies, protected areas, and measures to combat illegal logging. But despite this high congruence, the policy instruments need to be implemented in country-specific combinations, because we find diverging stakeholder perceptions on national policy mixes. These diverging perceptions require good governance within the related decision and implementation processes. Whereas NGOs in general have a stronger focus on regulatory instruments, enterprises show more support for economic measures. International organizations have the most balanced perception in this respect, followed by national governments. National governments are the most powerful stakeholders. Their power is required to coordinate decision processes and ensure implementation. The almost equally powerful role of international organizations poses questions of ownership. We present a detailed analysis of policy mixes and recommendations for each of the three countries. • Regulative policy instruments remain important despite the current focus on economic incentives. • Protected areas and reforestation measures scored as most effective policy instruments. • Implementation in country-specific policy mixes is decisive. • National governments and international organizations were most powerful stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippines is among the severely deforested countries in the tropics and in Southeast Asia. Deforestation resulted to the massive loss of species including aggravated environmental-related disasters and calamities. Recent government program aimed to reforest degraded lands had been initiated through the "National Greening Program" thus the need to identify potential indigenous and endemic species to be used for forest restorationand/or reforestation was recognized. Using the "framework species approach" (FSA), this study was conducted to determine potential candidate species. Sampling method involves rapid assessment thru a 1000 m transect walk and random establishment of six sampling plots measuring 10 x 10 m2 within the successional forest and grassland community of Mt. Musuan. Potential candidate species was assessed mainly via quantitative measures (i.e. relative frequency and density) as this suggest the species' ability to colonize, inhabit and survive on degraded areas. A total of twenty-one tree species were identified to include: Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr., Ficus ampeles Burm.f., Wendlandia luzoniensis DC., Glochidion lutescens Blume, Glochidion album (=Phyllanthus albus (Blanco.) Muell.Arg.), Myrsine mindanaensis (Elmer) Pipoly, Cratoxylum sumatranum Jack (Blume), Cratoxylum formosum (Jacq.) Benth.& Hook.f.ex Dyer, Rhus taitensis Guill., Neonauclea formicaria (Elmer) Merr., Neonauclea media (Havil.) Merr., Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn., Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng., Polyscias nodosa (Blume) Seem., Gmelina elliptica Sm., Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume, Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh., Ficus pseudopalma Blanco,Crypteronia paniculata Blume, Vitex parviflora A. Juss. and Leucosyke capitellata Wedd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Recent studies of forest lizards in Southeast Asia have highlighted spectacular morphological and cryptic genetic diversity in several poorly known clades. Unfortunately, many of the included species have microhabitat preferences for forested environments, and therefore they are threatened by extensive forest destruction throughout the region. This is particularly true in the Philippines, an archipelago with a strikingly high proportion (84%) of endemic geckos. Abundances inferred from historical museum collections suggests that we are in a critical period where apparent declines in population viability and species’ abundance have taken place faster than the growth in our understanding of alpha diversity. This phenomenon is exemplified in the exceedingly rare Philippine slender forest geckos of the genus Pseudogekko. Most of the known species are rarely encountered by field biologists, and species boundaries are unclear; this poor state of knowledge impedes effective conservation measures. Using the first multilocus phylogeny for these taxa, and phylogenetic and population genetic approaches, we elucidate evolutionary lineages and delimit species-level conservation targets in this unique radiation of endemic Philippine geckos. The results support the presence of widespread cryptic diversity in the genus, providing a framework for the re-evaluation of conservation priorities aimed at protecting these rare, forest-obligate species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Protected area strategies increasingly incorporate local forest inhabitants and aim to alleviate poverty. Common approaches include top-down integrated conservation and development projects, and alternative approaches characterized by decentralization, local participation, and community-based forest management. In the Philippines, these three characteristics are cornerstones of the state’s conservation agenda. This research examines state-led conservation initiatives in the Northern Negros Natural Park, Philippines. By identifying key distinctions among households living inside the Park and linking these to program outcomes, this article identifies major design and implementation challenges for efforts seeking to link conservation and development. Results indicate that current approaches achieve an economic win for a select few larger landholding households near to roads, but environmental requirements are not met and stakeholder participation in management is not realized. Expanding current approaches to include all households would likely result in increased deforestation or reduce areas of potential regeneration. As such, alternative strategies require exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Increasing biofuel production on agricultural lands in tropical island nations will likely result in increased deforestation , and also inflate food prices, especially in net food importing countries like the Philippines . Compounding problems associated with promotion of biofuels in southeast Asian countries are the technical efficiencies of bioethanol production, including poor energy balances from terrestrial crops that are close to, or less than unity, unless bagasse is used as the distillation heat source . As the increase in terrestrial biofuel production in Pacific island nations is potentially less sustainable than is publically stated, alternative feedstocks are required which retain the regional development benefits, while reducing the negative ecological and food security impacts . This work presents the potential of farmed macroalgae chemical substrates as a bioethanol feedstock supply, explores macroalgae-to-bioethanol yields, and details prospective non-food macroalgae species, specific to the Philippine coastal region. Leveraging off the existing capability of the macroalgae farming industry (producing 1.7 million wet tonnes annually in the Philippines alone), a significant new market for non-food macroalgae stimulated by bioethanol producers can be developed to avoid problems related to food/feed grade ethanol feedstocks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In Southeast Asia, it is human intervention into nature, through the uses and misuses of technological practices and perceptions, that primarily account for deforestation. The bulk of criticism and blame for deforestation in the Philippines from both legal and illegal logging is usually attributed to large logging corporations. The logging groups most often overlooked are small teams of poor farmers who are involved in illegal logging activities. In this paper, the illegal logging activities of poor farmers are examined, data on the number of trees logged each year by villagers are presented, and the extent of deforestation is projected in the greater Northern Luzon area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is widespread concern for many understorey and ground-dwelling bird species in the Philippines that appear intolerant of forest alteration. We present density estimates for 18 key bird species in old growth forest, advanced and early secondary growth and active cultivation within the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park in Palawan. Six species were not recorded in cultivation and the abundance of these and several others increased along the successional gradient from cultivation to old growth forest. Eleven species, including five endemics and three of four threatened species, had highest density estimates in old growth forest. However, several species had high density estimates in the heavily disturbed habitats and every habitat type held highest densities of at least one of the bird species. The commonest habitat association across the bird community was a preference for areas containing large trees, indicating the importance of retention of such trees in allowing suitable ground and understorey microhabitats to persist. Old growth forests have the highest conservation value for Palawan’s endemic birds and, while some species thrive in the anthropogenic habitats that occur within the Park, the present extent of cultivation and associated successional stages within its boundaries should not be increased. We caution against extrapolation of the abundance figures from the Park to the whole island but we suggest that population sizes for the threatened species are likely to be much greater than previously thought. We urge authorities to strengthen management within the protected area network in Palawan to ensure survival of key species. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite remaining uncertainties, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation in developing countries (REDD) projects are being planned and implemented across the tropics, primarily targeting countries with high forest cover and high deforestation rates. However, there is growing recognition that REDD planning requires a broadened approach; a future REDD mechanism should incentivise emissions reduction in all developing forested countries, and should address critical non-carbon dimensions of REDD implementation—quality of forest governance, conservation priorities, local rights and tenure frameworks, and sub-national project potential. When considering this broader suite of factors, different REDD priorities can emerge, including in countries with low forest cover that would be overlooked by conventional site selection criteria. Using the Philippines as a case study, the paper highlights the importance of an enabling environment to REDD implementation, and presents a more comprehensive and inclusive approach for thinking about what comprises a “REDD country.” [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper describes the approach of TOTAL Exploration & Production concerning the protection of biodiversity during oil and gas exploration and production activities, particularly in sensitive environments such as tropical islands. This approach was developed according to three stages: knowing biodiversity, protecting biodiversity and, going further, by contributing to scientific research. This three step approach is embedded in an environment protection policy and an associated set of actions already implemented for many years. Knowledge of the biodiversity is an indispensable preliminary to evaluating the sensitivity of a site which is likely to be impacted by an industrial activity. TOTAL E&P Indonésie (TI) has been operating for over 30 years in the East part of Borneo Island in areas of increasing sensitivity with respect to mangrove ecosystems; for example the Mahakam delta which includes the Tambora, Handil and Tunu fields. This area was initially covered by dense mangrove vegetation. Regular biodiversity surveys in the delta, especially for fishes, birds and benthos, have allowed TI to witness the progressive changes occurring in the delta. Reducing significant impacts and conserving biodiversity is considered as an integral part of sustainable development. With regard to the Mahakam delta, in the last decades there has been a marked increase of local population activities and deforestation due to shrimp-culture development. TI has made significant efforts with environmental management actions to protect the mangrove ecosystem through several environmental programs such as minimizing land clearing and reinstating cleared areas. The programs have involved local communities and other stakeholders such as NGO's and governmental bodies. Contributing to scientific knowledge of biodiversity is of mutual interest to both science and industry. The TOTAL Group, through its Foundation for Biodiversity and the Sea, has supported the establishment of a comprehensive inventory of the marine biodiversity of the island of Panglao, situated southwest of Bohol, Philippines. The Panglao Marine Biodiversity project was driven in collaboration between the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and the University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines. Recently, another major biodiversity inventory has been also supported by the TOTAL Foundation: the Santo 2006 biodiversity project. On this island, located in the Vanuatu archipelago, the research program has focused on four themes: marine, forest, karstic environments and alien species. Furthermore, TOTAL in partnership with IFREMER, a French oceanographic research centre, has also developed a comprehensive biodiversity research and development program dedicated to Deep Sea ecosystems. Even if initially focused off Western Africa, this emerging issue is also of concern in most of the tropical areas in the world where deep offshore environments are present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mt. Malindang is one of the upland ranges where biodiversity has been severely threatened due to forest loss. Fieldwork was conducted from October 2003 to December 2004 in 14 sampling sites from an elevation of 120 to over 1,700 m above sea level to assess the distribution of endemic and threatened herpetofaunal species. Twentysix species of amphibians and 33 species of reptiles were observed for all sampling sites. The level of endemism for amphibians was 42% where 7 of the 11 recorded species are found only in Mindanao. Nine species were in the threatened category, 8 vulnerable and 1 endangered. For the reptiles, 48% endemicity was observed. No threatened species was found. Field observations show that the major threat to the herpetofauna is habitat destruction, particularly the conversion of the forest to agricultural farms by the local people. It was also observed that endemic and threatened species were distributed in high elevation sites (submontane, dipterocarp, almaciga, and montane forests). Despite habitat loss in Mt. Malindang, 18% of the recorded herpetofaunal species recorded in the Philippines were found in Mt. Malindang, indicating the conservation importance of this mountain range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The “human appropriation of net primary production” (HANPP) has been suggested as a comprehensive indicator to measure impacts of human land use on ecosystems. It accounts for (a) human-induced changes in biological productivity and (b) biomass harvest. This study presents an analysis of aboveground HANPP in the Philippines between 1910 and 2003, a period characterized by massive deforestation and increases in land use intensity and biomass extraction. Results show a steep increase of aboveground HANPP from just below 35% of potential productivity in 1910 to slightly above 60% in 1970 and constant values since then. Large-scale changes in land cover and agricultural practices were the main direct determinants of this trajectory in HANPP. Remarkably, HANPP grew at much slower pace than population did: While the amount of NPP appropriated by humans doubled throughout the period, population increased by a factor ten. Increasing efficiency in terms of biomass extraction per unit of area, relying on ever-increasing inputs, and changes in the nation's physical biomass trade balance were of major importance for this difference in growth rates. In the coming decades, the Philippines will have to face the challenge to meet increases in biomass demand without putting even higher strains on the ecosystems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the case of a land constraint economy such as the Philippines, the efficient allocation of land to its various uses is essential. This constraint is further intensified by the growing population and increased demand for commercial land. The process of land classification is only the first step in managing land resources. A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model based on ORANI, a multi-sectoral model belonging to the Johansen class of CGE models was employed to ascertain the economy-wide effects of the reduction in forestry production due to conservation efforts. The paper also attempts to show the relative contribution of population growth and trade policies on deforestation in the case of the Philippines. The study evaluated some of the forestry policies recommended by the Philippine Master Plan for Forestry Development (1991-2015). In theory, the policies formulated would be viable and effective. The problem lies in the implementation especially of reforestation activities, which is the core of the Master Plan. The Philippine forests require intensive regeneration programs to revive the domestic logging industry and conservation programs to protect sensitive areas as well as the establishment of tree plantations. The study evaluated four policies from the Master Plan, namely the implementation of selective logging, imposition of stumpage tax on the forestry sector, lowering of forestry discount rates and the establishment of set-aside areas. The study found that moving into a selective logging regime and the establishment of set-aside areas would achieve forest conservation with little reduction in economic growth. Moreover, the results show that (domestic) population per se would not significantly increase deforestation. Whilst, export taxes are ineffective tools in reducing deforestation, trade liberalisation policies are beneficial to the economy as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on a study which examined the connections between commercial woodfuel demand and deforestation on the Island of Cebu in the central Philippines. It notes that the Island of Cebu is widely perceived as an environmental disaster area on the brink of ecological collapse, and tree cutting for woodfuel production is often blamed for contributing to this condition. It argues that environmental conditions in the island are improving, that tree planting and management is widespread among smallholder farmers and other landowners, and that commercial demand for woodfuel and other wood products is one of the main factors driving increased reforestation on the island.

Understanding the causes of land use change is of great importance for issues of tropical deforestation, agricultural development and biodiversity conservation. Many quantitative studies, therefore, aim to link land use change to its causal ‘driving forces.’ The epistemology of virtually all these studies is inductive, searching for correlations within relatively large, sometimes spatially explicit, datasets. This can be sound science but we here aim to exemplify that there is also scope for more deductive approaches that test a pre-defined explanatory theory. The paper first introduces the principles and merits of inductive and more deductive types of land use modeling. It then presents one integrated causal model that is subsequently specified to predict land use in an area in northeastern Philippines in a deductive manner, and tested against the observed land use in that area. The same set of land use data is also used in an inductive (multinomial regression) approach. With a goodness-of-prediction of 70% of the deductive model and a goodness-of-fit of 77% of the inductive model, both perform equally well, statistically. Because the deductive model explicitly contains not only the causal factors but also the causal mechanisms that explain land use, the deductive model then provides a more truly causal, as well as more theory-connected, understanding of land use. This provides land use scholarship with an invitation to add more deductive (theory-driven and theory-building) daring to its methodological repertoire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the use of stem cuttings in the macropropagation of shorea guiso (S. guiso). S. guiso belongs to the family of dipterocarpaceae and is one of the most important hardwood species used in general construction, beams, joist and other parts of houses and wood material for vehicle framing such as the native carts and carriages. It is widely distributed in the Philippines and is dominant in primary forest with low altitude. Moreover, several conservation and regeneration strategies had been initiated by the Philippines Department of Environment and Natural Resources to save S. guiso from extinction.

Abstract: Deforestation and forest degradation are the most important land use change processes in the Philippines. These processes are an important threat to the highly rated biodiversity of the country. Only a small fraction of the natural forest that once covered the country remains. In spite of different policies that aim to reduce logging recent commercial deforestation, illegal logging and agricultural expansion pose an important threat to the remaining forest areas. In this paper we discuss the role of (land use) modeling approaches for assessing the threats and trade-offs of protecting the designated nature areas. At the national level different scenarios of land use change and implementation of the protected area policy are evaluated and discussed based on a spatially explicit land use allocation model. For one of the main national parks, the Northern Sierra Madre Nature Park, a detailed analysis is presented based on in-depth knowledge of the region. The two modeling approaches discussed in this paper aim at different scales and provide complementary types of information to support the planning and management of nature conservation strategies. The combination of land use change analysis at different scales respects the hierarchical organization of the land use system and addresses different levels of protected area management. The results indicate that land use change models are useful tools to inform protected area management as long as the selection of the model approach is based on the research and policy questions at the appropriate scale. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The ecological trade-off between developmental time and starvation resistance, acting in a heterogeneous environment, can promote the coexistence of competing species. Heterogeneity results from variation in the vegetation that influences both abiotic (e.g. temperature, humidity) and biotic (e.g. fruit availability during the year) aspects of the environment. In this study, we investigated whether differences between collection sites have led to local differentiation of the two life-history traits underlying the coexistence model: developmental time and starvation resistance. Drosophila were collected from four collection sites, ranging from grassland to secondary forest, along a transect of 15 km. The microclimatic and vegetation differences among these collection sites were considerable. For developmental time, different species showed similar genetic responses to the (habitat) differences between the different collection sites. The shortest developmental times were found in the secondary forest populations and the agricultural area populations, the longest in the grassland populations, and the forest edge populations were intermediate. However, there was no correlation between the habitat ranking based on disturbance and canopy cover, and the ranking of the developmental times. Furthermore, the data did not confirm the generality of the positive correlation between developmental time and starvation underlying the coexistence model. © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 87, 115–125. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines links between labor market opportunities and deforestation by using data from agricultural households in the Philippines to estimate a system of three labor share equations. This theoretically consistent approach reveals factors influencing the competing and synergistic livelihood strategies that households undertake at the forest margin. The use of panel data allows us to test the hypotheses regarding the importance of household and village attributes, as well as the possible effects of past household activities on labor-allocation decisions. off-farm employment. Findings reveal strong price effects in labor-allocation decisions. The negative cross-price term for off-farm returns in the forest clearing equation indicates that labor can be drawn away from the forest through price incentives in the off-farm sector, consistent with patterns observed in Nepal, Malawi, and elsewhere in the Philippines. The results also show that tenure security and current levels of borrowing are negatively correlated with the forest labor share.

Poverty and environmental degradation or deforestation in developing countries have common determinants in underlying economic and institutional conditions that determine factor and product prices and incentives for migration and resource-depleting activities. These determinants include property rights failures (open access to forest lands) but also "government failures" in the form of policies that indirectly promote resource use and retard poverty alleviation. A general equilibrium analysis identifies influences that such distortions have on poverty and environment. Using a numerical GE model, we consider likely effects of Philippine trade policy reforms of the 1990s on determinants of poverty, deforestation, and agricultural land expansion. These reforms marked a significant shift away from the import substitution industrialization strategy that characterized post-independence Philippine development. The results suggest that though reforms would increase poverty in the short term, in the longer run trade liberalization is poverty reducing. The environmental impact can also be positive, provided liberalized trade is combined with appropriate government action to address market failures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accessibility is considered to be one of the most important determinants of use and land-cover change. In rural land-use change studies, the accessibility situation is often described by simple measures of the distance to a location of interest. In this paper, different measures of access are tested for a rural area at the forest fringe in the northeastern Philippines. The accessibility measures addressed range from simple distance measures to land-use type specific transport costs and a population potential measure. The different measures are tested based on their capacity to explain the spatial pattern of different land-use types. A comparison of the findings based on a spatial analysis and an analysis of household level data is made. It is concluded that the relation between land use and accessibility is dependent on the specific characteristics of the different land-use types. The (dis-)advantages of the use of the different accessibility measures are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines agricultural intensification and its impact on deforestation in a frontier region of the Philippines. Panel data covering the period 1994–2000 are used to study labor demand and resource reallocation in response to lowland irrigation development. Results illustrate how irrigation has led to changes in employment, incomes, and activities at the forest margin. Findings indicate that the off-farm employment opportunities created by irrigation development have helped to reduce rates of forest clearing. Although some initial employment gains have been reversed, wage-induced increases in agricultural productivity in the uplands have reduced forest pressure. Results show that lowland irrigation has had direct, indirect, and lagged effects on rates of forest clearing, and that a virtuous cycle may be at play, with irrigation leading to both poverty reduction and reduced forest pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents two applications of a spatially explicit model of land use change at two spatial scales: a nation-wide application for the Philippines at relatively coarse resolution and an application with high spatial resolution for one island of the Philippines: Sibuyan island, Romblon province. The model is based on integrated analysis of socio-economic and biophysical factors that determine the allocation of land use change in combination with the simulation of the temporal dynamics (path-dependence and reversibility of changes), spatial policies and land requirements. Different scenarios of near-future developments in land use pattern are simulated illustrating the effects of implementing spatial policies. Results from the coarse scale model with national extent mainly serve to identify the overall pattern of land use change and ‘hot zones’ of deforestation. The detailed application provides more insight in the pattern of land use change and its consequences for ecological processes. The use of the results for environmental assessments is illustrated by calculating spatial indices to assess the impact of land use change on forest fragmentation. It is concluded that spatially explicit modeling of land use change yields important information for environmental management and land use planning. The applications illustrate that the scale of analysis is an important determinant of the model configuration, the interpretation of the results and the potential use by stakeholders. There is no single, optimal, scale for land use change assessments. Each scale enables different types of analysis and assessment: applications at multiple scales therefore give complementary information needed for environmental management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paradoxically, flooding continues to worsen on the heavily populated and highly cultivated deltaic coastal plains around Manila Bay, even during the current period of reduced rainfall. In Pampanga Province, volcanic sediments from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption have clearly enhanced flooding by clogging stream channels, but long before 1991 this area was already experiencing increasing flood frequency, magnitude and duration. Furthermore, the adjacent areas of Bulacan Province and the Metro Manila's coastal KAMANAVA suburbs received little Pinatubo debris, but are also increasingly flood-prone. Urbanization and deforestation are important causes of the worsening floods but, in the long-term, rising local sea level is the primary factor. This is not the 2 mm/y rise induced by global warming, for regional subsidence is much more rapid. Deltaic muds naturally ‘autocompact’ after deposition: under their own accumulating weight, water is squeezed out, they thin, and the surface subsides slowly. Dewatering and subsidence are greatly accelerated by heavy extraction of groundwater for fishponds, farms, and the rapidly growing population. Annual subsidence of several centimeters measured at many Pampanga well-sites has been independently confirmed by recent geodetic resurveys. Social research refines and enriches our physical dataset by tapping and quantifying the regional population's long-term experience of both storm and tidal flooding. Sociological data regarding floods and tides from 53 sites indicate regional subsidence of 3-8 cm/y since 1991. Hidden underground and slow, subsidence escapes attention and allows gradual, short-time fixes for worsening floods. Perhaps only a worst-case deluge from simultaneous high tides, storm surges and rains will educate the people and bring about proper mitigation. Government efforts favor short-term political contingency over efficacy. Local politicians build wells to court votes; most national leaders are unaware of subsidence, and foreign engineering consultants ignore, deny or minimize the importance of subsidence. Expensive, ineffective dredging and diking projects, funded with foreign loans that stipulate the use of foreign expertise and ignore Filipino scientists, are vulnerable to corruption. People whose only assets are ancestral homes and lots are reluctant to recognize that their own wells are a major cause of flooding. They demand engineering solutions, but make them even more ineffectual by refusing rights-of-way. Flooding can be ameliorated in the short-term by restoring channel widths and modifying aquaculture. Reforestation would increase infiltration and decrease erosion and siltation. Rapid subsidence will persist if groundwater use is not considerably augmented by surface sources. Even so, flooding from both natural compaction and global sea level rise will continue. Adaptive solutions must be implemented, either ad hoc or by enlightened land-use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the links between agricultural employment and upland activities at a tropical forest margin. A model of low-land agricultural production is combined with a model of labor allocation on a representative upland farm to show how labor productivity, agricultural wages, and the returns from upland activities determine rates of forest clearing. Farm level data from the Philippines demonstrate how agricultural intensification—in the form of low-land irrigation development—led to an increase in labor demand, an increase in employment of upland inhabitants, and small but statistically significant reductions in rates of forest clearing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural growth in uplands of tropical developing countries is associated with deforestation, land degradation, and diminished watershed function. Using time-series price data from an upland Philippine watershed, we examine market integration and quantify product market links through which policy and macroeconomic shocks—including instability from the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98—are transmitted to farm gate prices. If market-driven incentives dominate farmers' decisions, then our results indicate the desirability of using a broader range of policy instruments to address upland problems, and the need for upland projects to devote increased attention to national-level information dissemination and policy advocacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Like many other tropical countries, the Philippines has suffered from decades of deforestation and forest degradation during and even after the logging era. Several open access Earth Observation (EO) products are increasingly being used for deforestation analysis in support of national and international initiatives and policymaking on forest conservation and management. Using a combination of annual forest loss and near-real time forest disturbance products, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the deforestation events in three forest frontiers of the Philippines. A space-time pattern mining approach was used to map quarterly deforestation hotspots at 1 km pixel size (100 hectares), where hotspots are classified according to the spatial and temporal variability of the 2000–2020 deforestation in the study area. Our results revealed that 79–81% of the hotspots overlap with primary forests and 27–29% are inside the state-declared protected areas. The intra-annual analysis of deforestation in 2020 revealed an alarming trend, where most deforestation occurred between the 1st and 2nd quarter (92–94% in hotspot forests; 87–89% in non-hotspot forests), highly overlapping within the slash-and-burn farming season. We also found "new" hotspots (2020) formed mostly from landslide scars and partly from selective logging, the latter is believed to be underestimated. Our study paves the way for rapid and regular assessment of the country's deforestation, useful for the respective environmental institutions who convene several times a year. Moreover, our findings assert the imperative of alternative livelihoods to upland farmers, efficient forest protection activities, and even the mitigation of landslide risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Situations have been identified where previously sustainable irrigation systems in long settled environments of South and Southeast Asia are contracting in irrigated area. This paper critically examines the theories addressing this situation. An alternative approach is used based on the impact of intensified upland land use on irrigated 'downstream' lands. All theories are empirically tested in a Philippine situation. Two interrelated factors are responsible: uncontrolled deforestation of uplan d areas and resultant destabilization of the hydrological regime, and indigenous irrigation systems that fail to distribute water adequately under altered hydrological conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses a multinomial discrete choice model and data from the Philippines to examine migrant choice between alternative destinations. Travel costs and perceived opportunities at the upland frontier are more important than general (upland plus lowland) destination attributes that indicate more developed social infrastructure or greater expected welfare. For example, migration streams are larger to destinations where the public share of forest land and the road system are larger. These features also characterize regions of more rapid deforestation. Therefore, emigration policies must recognize their effects on deforestation at the frontier—and their anticipated indirect effects on downstream environments [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the political use of Philippine forestry statistics in the postwar period. A major theme running through much of the literature on tropical deforestation is that data on changes in forest cover are often incomplete, non-existent, or of poor quality. These data problems contribute significantly to the difficulties that researchers have had and will continue to have in analyzing changes in tropical forests. An additional data problem which has not been reported in the literature is that, at least in the case of the Philippines since 1945, statistics on forest cover and deforestation have often been manipulated by corrupt bureaucrats to deliberately mask the rate anti extent of deforestation. of corruption in the forestry sector In short, the present analysts argues for an extension of our current notions of corruption to include the statistical reporting system itself. The importance of the present work goes beyond this case study of the Philippines because rapid changes in forests are occurring throughout the tropics and accurate public information on such changes could be damaging to vested interests.

This article evaluates increasing population pressure on forest lands, and analyses the requirements for promoting more conservation-oriented upland farming practices in the Philippines. Using census data with appropriate environmental reclassifications, it was found that about a third of the country's population resided in the uplands and that major migration flows led to upland destinations. While both commercial logging and upland farming contribute to deforestation, commercial forests are already almost exhausted. Thus, in the future, promoting environmentally responsible upland farming will be a major challenge for resource administrators. Since the primary environmental effects Of farming steep slopes are related to soil erosion, incentives to make upland farmers themselves adopt soil conservation practices are needed. Providing land tenure, together with subsidies for conservation practices, are practical responses to the challenge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the richest in biodiversity globally has been the Philippine rainforest, which used to cover about 90% of the country's land area. During the last few decades, the forest cover has been reduced to less than 10% of the original, only a fraction of which is old-growth forest. The negative impacts of deforestation led to the launching of the National Greening Program (NGP) that involved the planting of more than a billion seedlings over a few million hectares of land from 2011 to 2016. To assess the success of the NGP, satellite data from Landsat and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) were analyzed before, during, and after the NGP. Reforestation in the NGP sites was examined concurrently with observed deforestation in Luzon using forest loss data derived from Landsat for the period 2001 to 2018. The results show that losses declined from 2011 to 2015 but increased from 2016 to 2018. Because of such losses, the net effect is a balance of reforestation and deforestation or no significant gain from the NGP. Case studies were done in three sites in the Sierra Madre forest, where half of the remaining old-growth forest is located, using a combination of Landsat and Very High Resolution (VHR) data. The Landsat data were classified into closed forest, open forest, and other vegetation cover types. The conversion from one vegetation cover type to another was evaluated through the use of the Sankey Diagram. While some non-forest types became open or closed forests, the loss of open or closed forests is more pronounced. VHR data reveal critical issues happening within the NGP sites during the NGP period. More comprehensive data from MODIS also confirm that there was no significant increase in the forest cover in Luzon, Sierra Madre, and Cordillera from 2001 to 2018. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lotic ecosystems in urban areas are severely impacted by anthropogenic environmental stressors, such as deforestation and nutrient pollution, due to socioeconomic activities in the catchment. To work out measures for identification and mitigation of concurrent multiple stressors to a stream system, it is necessary to assess the relative importance of impacts by the individual stressors. Here we aimed to discriminate the covarying effects of nutrient pollution and deforestation on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in an urbanised tropical stream system. In the Silang-Santa Rosa Subwatershed (SSRS) of Laguna de Bay, benthic macroinvertebrates and physicochemical environments were investigated at 13 sites varying in human population density, riparian canopy, and land-use pattern as indicated by geographic information systems in the catchment. Regression and multivariate analyses were performed to identify the drivers of the biodiversity loss and understand its underlying mechanisms. In the SSRS, where rapid economic growth took place without updating poorly installed wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), domestic activity indicated by human population density in the catchment was the primary factor in generating heavy phosphorous loadings (mean total phosphorus = 0.91; range = 0–1.50 mg/l) that caused hypoxia (mean dissolved oxygen = 2.98; range = 0.13–6.27 mg/l) in stream waters and subsequently reduced macroinvertebrate diversity (mean H' = 0.91; SD ± 0.61). Nutrient and organic pollution and riparian deforestation explained 53.5% and 9.7% of the variation of benthic macroinvertebrate communities in SSRS, respectively. Given such scenario, additional WWTPs servicing urban developments and improved riparian canopy cover in the SSRS can be both strategic and cost-effective in the initial steps of environmental mitigation in urbanised streams, especially in rapidly developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]