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Importance: Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae are emerging as a global public health risk. Therefore, assessing the prevalence of carbapenem-resistant Escherichia coli (CRE) in both humans and animals is important., Objective: We aimed to ascertain the occurrence and characteristics of CRE isolated from companion animals, dogs and cats., Methods: E. coli strains were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using the broth microdilution technique. Antimicrobial resistance genes were detected by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing analysis. The molecular characteristics of CRE were determined using multi-locus sequence typing, replicon typing, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE)., Results: In total, 13 CRE isolates (0.13%) were identified from dogs possessing bla NDM-5 along with β-lactamase genes, mostly bla CMY-2 (92.2%) and bla TEM-1 (53.8%). The commonly observed mutations were S83L and D87N in gyrA , S80I in parC , and S458A in parE . CRE carried non-beta-lactam resistance genes, with the majority being tet (B) (100%), sul (84.6%), and aac(3)-II (53.8%). Nine different PFGE patterns (P1-P9), IncX3-type plasmids (69.2%), and ST410 (84.6%) were predominantly detected., Conclusions and Relevance: This investigation provides significant insight into the prevalence and molecular characteristics of bla NDM-5 -carrying E. coli in dogs. The co-existence of bla NDM-5 and other antimicrobial resistance genes in E. coli potentially poses severe health hazards to humans., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (© 2024 The Korean Society of Veterinary Science.)

The production of β-lactamase by nontyphoidal Salmonella has become a public health issue throughout the world. In this study, we aimed to investigate the antimicrobial resistance profiles and molecular characteristics of β-lactamase-producing Salmonella enterica serovar Albany isolates. A total of 434 Salmonella Albany were obtained from feces and carcasses of healthy and diseased food-producing animals [cattle ( n  = 2), pigs ( n  = 3), chickens ( n  = 391), and ducks ( n  = 38)] during 2013-2020. Among the 434 Salmonella Albany isolates, 3.7% showed resistance to cefoxitin, and all the cefoxitin-resistant isolates were obtained from chickens. Moreover, Salmonella Albany isolates demonstrated high resistance to nalidixic acid (99.3%), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (97.9%), ampicillin (86.6%), chloramphenicol (86.6%), and tetracycline (85.7%), as well as higher rates of multidrug resistance were detected in cefoxitin-resistant isolates compared to cefoxitin-susceptible isolates. All cefoxitin-resistant isolates harbored CMY-2-type β-lactamase and belonged to seven different pulsotypes, with type IV-b (43.75%) and IV-a (25%) making up the majority. In addition, genes encoding cefoxitin resistant of all bla CMY-2 -harboring Salmonella Albany isolates were horizontally transmitted to a recipient Escherichia coli J53 by conjugation. Furthermore, 93.75% (15/16) of conjugative plasmids harboring bla CMY-2 genes belong to ST12/CC12-IncI1. Genetic characteristics of transmitted bla CMY-2 genes were associated with IS Ecp1 , which can play an essential role in the effective mobilization and expression of these genes. Salmonella Albany containing bla CMY-2 in chickens can potentially be transferred to humans. Therefore, it is necessary to restrict antibiotic use and conduct continuous monitoring and analysis of resistant bacteria in the poultry industry.

Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria isolated from food animals pose a major health threat to the public on this planet. This study aimed to determine the susceptibility profiles of Escherichia coli isolated from cattle and pig fecal samples and investigate the molecular characteristics of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli using gene identification, conjugation, and Southern blot approach. Overall 293 E. coli were recovered from cattle (120 isolates) and pigs (173 isolates) in 7 provinces of Korea during 2017-2018. Ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, and sulfisoxazole resistance rates were the highest in pigs' isolates (>60%, p  ≤ 0.001) compared to that in cattle (3-39%). Multidrug resistance (MDR) was higher in pig isolates (73%) than in cattle (31%), and the MDR profile usually includes streptomycin, sulfisoxazole, and tetracycline. Resistance to critically important antimicrobials such as ceftiofur, colistin, and ciprofloxacin was higher in weaners than those from finishers in pigs. The qnrS gene was detected in 13% of the pig isolates. Eight isolates from pigs and one isolate from cattle were identified as ESBL-producers and ESBL genes belonged to bla CTX-M-55 ( n  = 4), bla CTX-M-14 ( n  = 3), and bla CTX-M-65 ( n  = 2). Notably, the bla CTX-M-65 and qnrS1 genes were found to be carried together in an identical plasmid (IncHI2) in two isolates from finisher pigs. The bla CTX-M -carrying isolates belonged to phylogenetic groups B1 ( n  = 4), B2 ( n  = 2), A ( n  = 2), and D ( n  = 1). The bla CTX-M genes and non-β-lactam resistance traits were transferred to the E. coli J53 recipient from seven bla CTX-M -positive strains isolated from pigs. The bla CTX-M genes belonged to the IncI1α, IncFII, and IncHI2 plasmids and are also associated with the IS Ecp1 , IS 26 , IS 903 , and orf477 elements. These findings suggested the possibility of bla CTX-M -carrying E. coli transmission to humans through direct contact with cattle and pigs or contamination of food products.

Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis has emerged as a public health concern. The main objectives of this study were therefore to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Salmonella Enteritidis and to investigate the molecular characteristics of identified ESBL-producing isolates. In the study, 237 Salmonella Enteritidis isolates (232 isolates from chickens, 4 from cattle, and 1 from a pig) were recovered from carcasses and fecal samples of healthy and diseased food animals between 2010 and 2017. Ceftiofur resistance was noted only in chicken isolates (43%, 102/237), with the highest in healthy chickens and their carcasses (48.3%, 83/172) compared with that in diseased chickens (31.7%, 19/60). All of the ceftiofur-resistant isolates exhibited resistance to multiple antimicrobials. Indeed, a relatively higher percentage of ceftiofur-resistant isolates demonstrated resistance to the tested aminoglycosides and tetracycline compared with the ceftiofur-susceptible strains. In this study, bla CTX-M-15 was the only ESBL gene detected in all of the ceftiofur-resistant isolates. The bla CTX-M-15 -carrying isolates belonged to 11 different pulsotypes. The bla CTX-M-15 gene was transferred from 20.6% (21/102) of the bla CTX-M-15 -harboring isolates to a recipient Escherichia coli J53. The coexistence of IncHI2/ST2 and IncFIIs/ST1 plasmids was noted in the majority (81.8%, 18/22) of the transconjugants. E. coli J53 transconjugants carrying bla CTX-M-15 gene showed distinct genetic environments, predominantly IS Ecp1 - bla CTX-M-15 - orf477 (15/21, 71.4%). This study demonstrated that healthy chickens and their carcasses act as reservoirs of bla CTX-M-15 -carrying Salmonella Enteritidis that can potentially be transmitted to humans.

Contamination of meat with antimicrobial-resistant bacteria represents a major public health threat worldwide. In this study, we determined the antimicrobial resistance profiles and resistance trends of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from major food animal carcasses (408 cattle, 1196 pig, and 1312 chicken carcass isolates) in Korea from 2010 to 2018. Approximately 75%, 92%, and 77% of cattle, pig, and chicken carcass isolates, respectively, were resistant to at least one antimicrobial agent. Resistance to penicillin (62.1%) was the highest, followed by resistance to tetracycline (42.1%) and erythromycin (28.2%). About 30% of pig and chicken isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin. We observed linezolid resistance only in pig isolates (2.3%). However, all S. aureus isolates were sensitive to rifampin and vancomycin. We noted an increasing but fluctuating trend of kanamycin and penicillin resistance in cattle isolates. Similarly, the chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim resistance rates were increased but fluctuated through time in pig isolates. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) accounted for 5%, 8%, and 9% of the cattle, pig, and chicken isolates, respectively. The MRSA strains exhibited significantly high resistance rates to most of the tested antimicrobials, including ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, and tetracycline compared with methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) strains. Notably, a relatively high percentage of MRSA strains (5.2%) recovered from pig carcasses were resistant to linezolid compared with MSSA strains (2.1%). In addition, almost 37% of the isolates were multi-drug resistant. S. aureus isolates recovered from major food animal carcasses in Korea exhibited resistance to clinically important antimicrobials, posing a public health risk.

Objectives: Human infection by ciprofloxacin-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Kentucky sequence type 198 (ST198) has been reported in the USA, Europe and Korea. In this study, we report the complete genome sequence of the first Salmonella Kentucky ST198 strain isolated from a chicken carcass in South Korea., Methods: The recovered Salmonella Kentucky, designated as K13SK002, was isolated from a chicken carcass in 2013. Genomic DNA was sequenced using a combination of 20-kb PacBio SMRTbell library and PacBio RS II. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined. Antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes were investigated in silico using ResFinder and VirulenceFinder tools, respectively, available at the Center for Genomic Epidemiology server., Results: The genome of K13SK002 consists of contiguous sequences (contigs) with a total length of 4 847 849 bp and a GC content of 52.20%. We detected a total of 4352 protein-coding sequences, 85 tRNA genes and 22 rRNA genes. MICs for ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, streptomycin, sulfisoxazole and tetracycline were 64, 16, 16, 64, >256 and 128 μg/mL, respectively. We found six antimicrobial resistance genes, however no plasmids and genes associated with adherence, toxins and exoenzyme were found. Ciprofloxacin-resistant Salmonella Kentucky K13SK002 was found to have mutations in DNA gyrase A (S83F and D87Y)., Conclusion: This is the first report of the complete genome sequence of a Salmonella Kentucky ST198 strain isolated from a chicken carcass in South Korea. This genome sequence provides useful information on the genomic features associated with virulence and antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella Kentucky ST198., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Salmonella enterica Indiana ST17 strain (K16SI097), exclusively found in China, was first isolated in 2016 in Korea from a chicken carcass. This strain contains multidrug-resistant genes, and is particularly resistant to ciprofloxacin (64 μg/mL). In this study, we aimed to elucidate the genomic relationship and compare antimicrobial resistance factors between Korean chicken-derived and Chinese clones of S. Indiana ST17., Methods: The genomic DNA of S. enterica Indiana K16SI097 was sequenced via the combined analysis of 20-kb PacBio SMRTbell library and PacBio RS II. Antimicrobial resistance genes were analysed by the Center for Genomic Epidemiology (http://www.genomicepidemiology.org/). Chromosomal and plasmid DNA of the Korean and Chinese strains were compared., Results: The K16SI097 genome comprises two contiguous sequences (contigs) amounting to 4 731 335 base pairs with a 51.85% GC content. In total, 4574 protein-coding regions, 84 tRNA genes, and 22 rRNA genes were detected. Among the annotated contigs, 14 antimicrobial resistance genes were detected; DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV contained mutations. Moreover, chromosomal DNA of K16SI097 and of the published Chinese strain displayed 99.9% similarity. Furthermore, plasmids displayed similar sizes, sequences, and structures., Conclusions: This is the first report on the complete genome sequence of the high-level ciprofloxacin-resistant S. enterica Indiana ST17 strain isolated in Korea. This genome sequence will help us understand the ST17 strain lineage and its features such as antimicrobial resistance., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Staphylococcus aureus is among the most common zoonotic pathogens that cause foodborne illnesses worldwide. The main objectives of the current study were therefore to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of S. aureus isolated from goats in Korea and to investigate the molecular characteristics of identified methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In the study, 481 S. aureus isolates (431 from the nasal cavity and 50 from carcass) were recovered from 1146 carcasses and nasal swabs between July 2018 and January 2019. Approximately 82% and 72.6% of nasal and carcass isolates, respectively, were resistant to at least one antimicrobial agent, with the highest rate of resistance to penicillin, followed by resistance to chloramphenicol and tetracycline. Relatively small proportions of the isolates were resistant to cefoxitin, clindamycin, and erythromycin. However, all S. aureus isolates were sensitive to linezolid, rifampin, and vancomycin. Six MRSA isolates were obtained, three each from the nasal cavity and carcass. MRSA isolates were of two sequence types (ST) (ST72 and ST398), three spa types (t664, t324, and t571), and two SCCmec types (IV and V). The ST72 MRSA isolates had identical PFGE profiles. In addition, ST72 MRSA-SCCmec IV isolates carried at least six staphylococcal leukotoxin- and enterotoxin-encoding genes (lukED, seg, sei, sem, sen, seo, and seq). The remaining ST398 isolate carried only the lukED gene and was additionally resistant to eight non-β-lactam antibiotics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of MRSA from goats in Korea. There is a possibility of transmission of MRSA from goat to human or contamination of food products. Therefore, regular microbiological investigation in goats, farms, and slaughterhouses is critical to determine the existence of virulent and multi-drug resistant (MDR) S. aureus and to implement preventive strategies., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We identified 199 Staphylococcus aureus isolates from quarter milk samples of 1,289 dairy cattle between 2014 and 2018. About 66% of the isolates were resistant to at least 1 antimicrobial agent; the highest rate of resistance was to penicillin, followed by resistance to ampicillin, erythromycin, and sulfadimethoxine. We obtained 30 methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains from 6 farms in 3 provinces. The MRSA strains exhibited a significantly higher resistance rate to most of the tested antimicrobials than the oxacillin-susceptible strains. The MRSA strains represented 5 genotypes: ST72-t324-SCCmec IV (n = 14), ST30-t1752-SCCmec IV (n = 8), ST188-t189-SCCmec NT (n = 6), ST188-t2284-SCCmec NT (n = 1), and NT-NT-SCCmec IV (n = 1). One of the ST188 MRSA strains represented a novel staphylococcal protein A (spa) type (t2284). In addition, 7 of the 8 ST30 MRSA strains were Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL)-positive and carried various staphylococcal enterotoxin encoding genes. This is the first report of PVL-positive ST30 MRSA-t1752-SCCmec IV from bovine mastitis in Korea. All of ST72-t324-SCCmec IV MRSA strains carried staphylococcal enterotoxin and leukotoxin encoding genes. They were also sensitive to most of the tested non-β-lactam antimicrobials. In contrast, ST188-t189 MRSA strains were resistant to multiple antimicrobials and predominantly carried the leukotoxin encoding gene. Taken together, these findings may indicate that dairy cows could be a major source for spreading MRSA strains, and contaminated milk could be a vehicle for transmission. Suitable hygienic measures should be established in dairy farms and processing plants to limit the likelihood of introducing MRSA into the food chain., (Copyright © 2021 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Food-producing animals are considered a leading source of human Salmonella infections in Korea. However, there is a lack of comprehensive and up-to-date data regarding the diversity and resistance profiles of Salmonella serotypes in these animals. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the distribution and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella serotypes isolated from cattle, pigs, and chickens in Korea between 2010 and 2018. A total of 3018 Salmonella isolates were obtained from 16 laboratories/centers participating in the Korean Veterinary Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System. Salmonella serotypes were identified from the following isolates: 179 cattle (17 serotypes), 959 pig (45 serotypes), and 1880 chicken (64 serotypes). The most frequent serotypes in cattle (Typhimurium, Salmonella 4,[5],12:i:-, and Schwarzengrund), pigs (Typhimurium, Rissen, and S. 4,[5],12:i:-), and chickens (Enteritidis, Albany, Virchow, and Montevideo) accounted for more than 50% of the total serotypes in the respective animal species. To the best of our knowledge, Salmonella 4,[5],12:i:- has not been identified in cattle in Korea to date. More than 80% of the isolates demonstrated resistance to at least one antimicrobial agent. Multidrug-resistance was found in almost half of the serotypes; the highest proportion in cattle (59.2%), followed by pigs (53.4%), and chickens (45.7%). Significant proportions of the serotypes were resistant to ampicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Ceftiofur and ciprofloxacin resistance rates were the highest in Salmonella isolated from chickens (17.1% and 4.1%, respectively) and cattle (10.1% and 3.9%, respectively) compared to that in pigs. Among the frequent serotypes, Albany demonstrated the highest resistance rate (>90%) to five different antimicrobials. Alarmingly, some Salmonella serotypes that are frequently associated with human infections demonstrated a trend of increasing resistance to critically important antibiotics, including 3rd generation cephalosporins and quinolones. Collectively, the presence of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella in food-producing animals poses a potential risk to public health., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Global dissemination of non-typhoidal Salmonella producing extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) is a public-health concern. Recently, the prevalence of Salmonella spp. resistant to third-generation cephalosporins has been increasing in food-producing animals in Korea. In this study, we investigated resistance mechanisms and molecular characteristics of S. Virchow isolates resistant to extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESCs). We obtained 265 S. Virchow isolates from fecal and carcasses samples of cattle (n = 2), pigs (n = 7), and chickens (n = 256) during 2010-2017, and observed high ESC-resistance (63.8%, 169/265); most of the resistant isolates (96.4%) were obtained from chickens. ESC-resistant S. Virchow isolates (n = 169) showed significantly higher resistance rates to other antimicrobials (especially aminoglycosides and tetracycline, p-value <0.0001), as well as prevalence of multidrug resistance, than did ESC-susceptible S. Virchow isolates (n = 96). All ESC-resistant S. Virchow produced CTX-M-15-type ESBL (n = 147) and/or CMY-2-type AmpC β-lactamase (n = 23). ESC-resistant S. Virchow represented seven pulsotypes, predominantly composed of type II (58.6%) and III (26.0%), detected in 69 farms in 10 provinces, and 33 farms in 7 provinces, respectively. Genes encoding ESC-resistance were horizontally transferred by conjugation to recipient E. coli J53; this was demonstrated in 28.8% (42/146) of bla CTX-M-15 -positive isolates and in 50.0% (11/22) of bla CMY-2 -positive isolates. All conjugative plasmids carrying bla CTX-M-15 and bla CMY-2 genes belonged to ST2-IncHI2 and ST12/CC12-IncI1, respectively. Genetic features of transferred bla genes were involved with ISEcp1 in both bla CTX-M-15 and bla CMY-2 ; ISEcp1 plays a critical role in the efficient capture, expression, and mobilization of bla genes. In addition to bla CTX-M-15 genes, resistance markers to aminoglycosides and/or tetracycline were co-transferred to recipient E. coli J53. Our results show a high prevalence of ESBL-producing S. Virchow in chickens and chicken carcasses. Specific bla CTX-M-15 and bla CMY-2 -carrying S. Virchow clones and plasmids were predominant in food-producing animals nationwide. Restriction of antimicrobial use and proper biosecurity practices at the farm level should be urgently implemented in the poultry industry., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Not applicable., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Antibiotics administered to farm animals have led to increasing prevalence of resistance genes in different microbiomes and environments. While antibiotic treatments help cure infectious diseases in farm animals, the possibility of spreading antibiotic resistance genes into the environment and human microbiomes raises significant concerns. Through long-term evolution, antibiotic resistance genes have mutated, thereby complicating the resistance problems., Results: In this study, we performed deep sequencing of the gut microbiomes of 36 swine and 41 cattle in Korean farms, and metagenomic analysis to understand the diversity and prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes. We found that aminoglycoside, β-lactam, lincosamide, streptogramin, and tetracycline were the prevalent resistance determinants in both swine and cattle. Tetracycline resistance was abundant and prevalent in cattle and swine. Specifically, tetQ, tetW, tetO, tet32, and tet44 were the 5 most abundant and prevalent tetracycline resistance genes. Their prevalence was almost 100% in swine and cattle. While tetQ was similarly abundant in both swine and cattle, tetW was more abundant in swine than in cattle. Aminoglycoside was the second highest abundant resistance determinant in swine, but not in cattle. In particular, ANT(6) and APH(3'') were the dominant resistance gene families in swine. β-lactam was also an abundant resistance determinant in both swine and cattle. Cfx was the major contributing gene family conferring resistance against β-lactams., Conclusions: Antibiotic resistome was more pervasive in swine than in cattle. Specifically, prevalent antibiotic resistance genes (prevalence >50%) were found more in swine than in cattle. Genomic investigation of specific resistance genes from the gut microbiomes of swine and cattle in this study should provide opportunities to better understand the exchange of antibiotic resistance genes in farm animals., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press.)

Background: Antimicrobial resistance is becoming increasingly important in both human and veterinary medicine. According to the One Health concept, an important step is to monitor the resistance patterns of pathogenic bacteria. In this study, the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and trends of bacteria isolated from stray cats, hospital-admitted cats, and veterinary staff in South Korea between 2017 and 2018 were investigated., Results: The minimum inhibitory concentrations of different antibiotics for Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacteriaceae, and Enterococcus spp. were determined to establish representatives of different antibiotic classes relevant for treatment or surveillance. For Coagulase-positive and Coagulase-negative Staphylococci, resistance to fluoroquinolones was below 13%, but resistance to ampicillin and penicillin was high (20-88%). A total of 9.5, 12.1, and 40.3% of staphylococcal isolates from stray cats, hospital-admitted cats, and veterinary staff, respectively, were confirmed to be mecA positive. For Enterobacteriaceae, resistance to carbapenems, fluoroquinolones, and 3rd generation cephalosporins was low (0-11.1%). The Enterococcus spp. isolates showed no resistance to vancomycin. The antimicrobial resistance rates of the Staphylococcus spp. and Enterobacteriaceae isolates from stray cats were usually lower than those of isolates from hospital-admitted cats and veterinary staff, but the Enterococcus spp. isolates revealed the opposite. Thus, the antimicrobial resistance varied across bacterial species according to the source from which they were isolated., Conclusions: Resistance to critically important compounds were low. However, the presence of antimicrobial resistance in cat isolates is of both public health and animal health concern.

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are one of the most common bovine mastitis pathogens found worldwide. In this study, we investigated the prevalence and distribution of CNS species in mastitis milk samples and further characterized the methicillin-resistant (MR) CNS. A total of 311 CNS were isolated from 3,692 quarter milk samples from 1,373 dairy cattle at 81 farms between 2013 and 2017. Further evaluation of the CNS isolates revealed 14 CNS species among the samples and 3 predominant species-namely, Staphylococcus chromogenes, Staphylococcus simulans, and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Resistance was higher in S. epidermidis than in other CNS species except for resistance against oxacillin in Staphylococcus sciuri. Resistance to β-lactams was the most common in all CNS species (8.4% in ampicillin, 21.2% in oxacillin, and 13.5% in penicillin). Conversely, only minimal resistance to cephalothin, ceftiofur, and pirlimycin/novobiocin was found. Twenty-one isolates from 4 species were mecA-carrying MRCNS strains, including 18 S. epidermidis and 1 each of S. sciuri, Staphylococcus equorum, and Staphylococcus hominis. The majority of the mecA-carrying MRCNS isolates were produced in the biofilm. Furthermore, multidrug-resistant sequence type 179 isolate produced the strongest biofilm. Seven genotypes were detected in the 18 MR S. epidermidis strains, the most predominant of which persisted on a farm for 2 yr. Our findings for the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles and genotypic characterization of the MRCNS isolates could provide valuable information for controlling the spread of resistance and the selection of appropriate antimicrobial therapies for mastitis in the future. Further, strategic antibiotic use for mastitis treatment and hygienic management practices aimed at the prevention of the growth of resistant bacteria are urgently needed on dairy farms., (Copyright © 2019 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Pasteurella multocida causes single or complex respiratory disease in pigs. Although antimicrobial therapy is the most effective treatment for porcine respiratory disease, P. multocida shows increased antimicrobial resistance in Korea. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the phenotypic and genotypic characterization of tetracycline-resistant P. multocida. Thirty-seven of 454 P. multocida isolates from South Korea between 2010 and 2016 were selected. Four tet genes [tet(B) (78.4%), tet(H) (16.2%), tet(C) (5.4%), and tet(O) (2.7%)] were observed. This is the first report of tet(C) in P. multocida. Various virulence factors were observed in both tetracycline-resistant and -susceptible P. multocida isolates. Genes encoding pmHAS and pfhA were more prevalent in tetracycline-resistant than in tetracycline-susceptible isolates. Some virulence factors exhibited association with serogroups. tadD and sodA were common in serogroup A, while hsf-l was significantly associated with serogroup D (p < 0.01). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) results showed the genetic diversity of tetracycline-resistant P. multocida. MLST showed six different sequence types (ST), with clonal complex 13 encompassing 56.8% of the strains. PFGE was more efficient in differentiating the isolates, and 29 PFGE patterns of the strains were observed. By combining these methods, identical STs and PFGE patterns were observed in isolates from different farms, suggesting that transmission of antimicrobial-resistant P. multocida strains between farms might occur in a geographically discrete population. In future, epidemiological approaches and development of effective vaccines should focus on the major clonal lineages carrying the important virulence factors and frequently observed resistance genes to prevent the transmission and control the disease., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In this study, we investigated the prevalence and characteristics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates from pigs and pig farmers in Korea. A total of 1245 nasal swabs were collected from pigs and farmers at 53 pig farms in nine provinces from 2012 to 2016. The prevalence of MRSA was 7.9% (88/1119) in pigs and 16.7% (21/126) in farmers. Among 119 farmers working on conventional farms, 21 (17.6%) tested positive for MRSA. However, no MRSA was detected in either pigs or farmers at four organic farms. The individual pig-level prevalence of MRSA differed between age groups, with the percentage of positive samples being highest in weaners (17.3%), followed by growers (9.0%), piglets (6.5%), finishers (4.4%), and sows (0%). Two different lineages of MRSA were detected among the 109 isolates from pigs and farmers: (1) livestock-associated types of MRSA belonging to 27 isolates of ST541-t034-V, 24 isolates of ST398-t571-V, 17 isolates of ST398-t034 variant (G420A)-V, and one isolate of ST541-t8588-V; and (2) community-associated types of MRSA belonging to 21 isolates of ST188-t189-IV, 14 isolates of ST72-t324-IV, three isolates of ST72-t664-IV, one isolate of ST72-t148-IV, and one isolate of ST72-t5440-IV. Identical genotypes were detected in both pigs and farmers at six farms. New MRSA clones were isolated from pigs (ST398-t034 (G420A)-V, ST188-t189-IV, and ST398-t571-V) and pig farmers (ST541-t8588-V and ST72-t5440-IV). The prevalence of MRSA was also correlated with antibiotic usage, and the clones showed diversification between pigs and farmers. Ultimately, the increased frequency and diversification of livestock-associated MRSA could be a potential threat to public health in Korea. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the prevalence and characteristics of MRSA in pigs and pig farmers in Korea.

The heavy use or abuse of antimicrobials in food animals has caused an increase in antimicrobial resistance in enterococci of animal origin, which could get transmitted to those of human origin via the food chain. Since duck meat consumption has been on the rise in Korea, we conducted this study to provide information about the antimicrobial resistance of the enterococci obtained from healthy ducks and their carcasses. A total of 82 Enterococcus faecium and 174 E. faecalis isolated from duck fecal and carcass samples were investigated for antimicrobial resistance to 16 agents, using broth dilution method, and were further characterized using molecular methods. Most of E. faecium (84.1%) and E. faecalis (87.9%) isolates were resistant to one or more antimicrobials. Multi-drug resistant (MDR) isolates were observed in both E. faecium (40.2%) and E. faecalis (33.9%) with high frequencies. High rate of resistance was observed for tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, and erythromycin in both E. faecium and E. faecalis. Resistance to gentamicin, vancomycin, and daptomycin, in both E. faecium and E. faecalis, was, if at all, very rare. However, linezolid resistance was observed in nine E. faecium (11.0%) and one E. faecalis (0.6%). All, but one, Linezolid resistant (LR) isolates were also resistant to chloramphenicol and florfenicol. The novel transferable oxazolidinone and phenicol resistant gene, optrA, was found in six E. faecium isolates. All of them co-carried phenicol exporter gene fexA. None of the LR isolates had mutation in the 23S ribosomal RNA and in the ribosomal protein L3. Six LR E. faecium isolates had Asn130Lys mutation in the ribosomal protein L4, of which five also carried optrA gene. None of the isolates carried the multi-resistance gene cfr. Transfer of oxazolidinone and phenicol resistance was observed in five among the 10 LR isolates; two of them had optrA and fexA genes. Multi-drug resistant Enterococcus that also carried the resistance gene to a last-resort antimicrobial is a major concern for public health. Thus, to prevent the introduction of last-resort antimicrobial resistance into food chain, continuous surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in duck is imperative., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Bovine mastitis caused by Prototheca has been reported globally, and its incidence is increasing in dairy herds. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of Prototheca and persistence of Prototheca zopfii strains in Korean dairy herds. A total of 187 (7.5%) P. zopfii strains were isolated from 2,508 quarter milk samples collected from 50 dairy farms throughout Korea from 2015 to 2017. Prototheca zopfii was isolated from one farm among the 50 farms over the 3-yr period. The P. zopfii isolates belonged to genotype 2. Overall, Prototheca-positive quarter milk samples showed high somatic cell counts with an average value of log 6.48 ± 6.54 cells/mL. Prototheca zopfii was found to be persistent in an infected farm over a 2-yr period. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the presence and persistence of protothecal mastitis caused by P. zopfii genotype 2 in a Korean dairy herd. This disease leads to a significant increase in somatic cell counts in milk, which persists for more than 1 yr in the affected cow udder. These results suggest that P. zopfii could pose a serious risk to dairy herds. Thus, strict surveillance for protothecal mastitis is urgently needed and sanitary conditions regarding the environment and milk collection are essential because of the lack of effective treatment options., (Copyright © 2019 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Of 11 mcr-1-harboring plasmids previously identified from livestock in Korea, we performed whole plasmid sequencing on 3 plasmids and determined the genetic structure surrounding mcr-1 for all 11 plasmids. Transconjugation frequencies were measured for all mcr-1-harboring plasmids and competitive growth experiments were performed to investigate the fitness cost of each plasmid. Although they belong to different clones, the mcr-1-harboring plasmids, pEC006 and pEC019, were highly similar to the first identified mcr-1-carrying Incl2-type plasmid, pHNSHP45. Another IncX4-type plasmid, pEC111, had completely different structure from these plasmids, but was similar to pMCR1-IncX4. A nearly identical 11.3 kb mcr-1 region (nikB-ISApl1-mcr-1-pap2-topB) was shared by all mcr-1-harboring plasmids except pEC111. The transfer rate of mcr-1-harboring plasmids was highly variable (10 -11 to 10 -3 ) and was not related to plasmid structure. Competitive growth experiments revealed that the fitness of all three transconjugants with mcr-1-harboring plasmids increased compared with that of the recipient strain, Escherichia coli J53. The mcr-1-harboring plasmids may have been repeatedly introduced into bacterial isolates since the initial introduction of the mcr-1-positive strain from other countries into South Korea. Transferability and reduced burden to the host of mcr-1-harboring plasmid may lead to the proliferation of colistin-resistant isolates in the future. Therefore, continuous monitoring is necessary.

Resistance to antimicrobials was measured in 73 isolates of Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) and 121 isolates of Campylobacter coli (C. coli) from chicken and swine feces and carcasses in Korea. Both bacterial species showed the highest resistance to (fluoro) quinolones (ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid) out of the nine antimicrobials tested. Erythromycin resistance was much higher in C. coli (19.0%, 23/121) than in C. jejuni (6.8%, 5/73). The mutation in the 23S rRNA gene was primarily responsible for macrolide resistance in Campylobacter isolates. Several amino acid substitutions in the L4 and L22 ribosomal proteins may play a role in the mechanism of resistance, but the role requires further evaluation. A total of eight virulence genes were detected in 28 erythromycin-resistant Campylobacter isolates. All C. jejuni isolates carried more than four such genes, while C. coli isolates carried fewer than three such genes. The high rate of resistance highlights the need to employ more prudent use of critically important antimicrobials, such as fluoroquinolones and macrolides, in swine and poultry production, and to more carefully monitor antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter isolates in food animals.

This study was undertaken to screen methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in animal carcasses and slaughterhouse workers and characterize MRSA isolates identified during 2010-2012 in Korea. A total of 830 (16.4%) S. aureus and 65 (1.3%) MRSA were isolated from 9669 carcass samples. MRSA was more frequently detected in chicken carcasses (1.2%) than in cattle (0.3%) and pig carcasses (0.6%). The prevalence of MRSA in workers was 6.9% (4/58) in chicken slaughterhouse workers, but no MRSA was detected in pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers (0/41). Two different lineages of MRSA were identified (i.e., human-associated type [ST5, ST59, and ST72] and livestock-associated [LA] type [ST398, ST541, and ST692]); only LA MRSA was observed in chicken carcasses, whereas both types were found in cattle and pig carcasses and workers. All human-associated MRSA isolates carried enterotoxin and/or leukotoxin genes, whereas LA MRSA types did not carry these genes, except ST692 type. However, all LA MRSA isolates were multiresistant, whereas human-associated types were susceptible or resistant to fewer than two antimicrobials except ST5. Furthermore, one or more resistance genes were attributed for resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6')-Ie-aph(2″), ant(4')-Ia, and aph(3')-IIIa), tetracycline [tet(K), tet(L), tet(M), and tet(S)], macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B (ermA, ermB, ermC, and ermT), lincosamide [lnu(B)], phenicol-lincosamide-oxazolidinone-pleuromutilin-streptogramin A (cfr), chloramphenicol (fexA), and fusidic acid [fus(C)]. To our knowledge, this is the first report of tet(S) gene in MRSA isolates and first detection of a unique (ST692) type of MRSA in occupational workers. Detection of new types of human-associated and LA MRSA with multiple resistance and virulence genes in food animal products constitutes a potential threat to public health.

This study was focused on characterization of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli isolates from chickens and CTX-M associated plasmid addiction systems (PASs) in E. coli from animals using molecular methods. In total, E. coli from nine (9.0%) of the 100 chicken samples examined produced CTX-M type ESBL namely CTX-M-14 (n=4), CTX-M-15 (n=4), and CTX-M-1 (n=1). All of them harbored an additional blaTEM-1 gene. Transfer of blaCTX-M gene was observed in eight out of the nine blaCTX-M-positive isolates by conjugation. Plasmid profiling of blaCTX-M-positive transconjugants revealed a high-molecular weight (95-165 kb) plasmid. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis showed that most CTX-M-producing chicken isolates were genetically diverse. Furthermore, investigation of 92 conjugation-positive E. coli strains carrying blaCTX-M genes from pigs (n=76), chickens (n=8), and dogs (n=8) identified 230 PASs in the parental strains and 118 in their transconjugants. Among them, hok-sok, pemKI, and pndAC were the most frequently represented PASs in both the parental strains and the transconjugants. Moreover, the hok-sok and pemKI systems were strongly associated to IncF plasmids and the pndAC system to IncI1-Iγ plasmids. Our results suggest that the rapid spread of CTX-M genes in E. coli isolates among the animals could be attributed to the presence of multiple PASs in the CTX-M plasmids. To our knowledge, this is the first report of characterization of CTX-M associated PASs in E. coli isolates from pigs, chickens, and dogs. In addition, CTX-M-1 was detected for the first time in Korea., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Androgenetic alopecia (AGA) is the most common type of hair loss, and is characterized by the transformation of terminal scalp hair into vellus hair. The epidemiology of AGA is not fully understood. A strong genetic basis has long been identified, although little is known of its nongenetic causes., Aim: To evaluate the association of AGA with a number of environmental factors, including smoking, drinking and sleeping habit., Methods: In total, 3114 Korean individuals with AGA who attended any one of 17 dermatology clinics in 6 cities in South Korea between March 2011 and February 2012 were enrolled in the study. Epidemiologic a data were collected using a standard questionnaire., Results: No association was seen between eating or sleeping habits and severity of hair loss. However, drinking and smoking were associated with the severity of AGA in male patients. We also found that patients of both genders with a family history had more advanced types of hair loss, and the age of onset of AGA in male patients with a family history was earlier than that in male patients without a family history., Conclusions: Although the evidence for an environmental influence on AGA remains very weak, we did find an association between hair loss severity and certain environmental factors, such as smoking and drinking. Family history with more severe hair loss and an earlier age of onset., (© 2013 British Association of Dermatologists.)

Of the 100 multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from a Korean hospital, 14 isolates that were resistant to all aminoglycosides tested carried 16S rRNA methylase gene armA. Fourteen armA-positive isolates were classified into 8 pulsotypes. Seven armA-positive isolates cocarried bla(IMP-1). This study is the first report of occurrence of armA in P. aeruginosa., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Mutations in DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV genes are the main mechanisms of resistance to quinolones. In this study, we determined mutations in gyrA, gyrB, parC and parE among 57 ciprofloxacin-resistant Escherichia coli isolates from a South Korean hospital and analysed the relationship between the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of fluoroquinolones and mutations in the topoisomerase IV gene. All ciprofloxacin-resistant E. coli isolates carried double mutations in gyrA and at least a single mutation in parC; some isolates also carried a single mutation in parE. The most common mutations were S83L and D87N in gyrA, S80I in parC and S458A in parE, which accounted for 25% of isolates. Single mutations in parE at L445I, S458P and S458W were identified for the first time. Double mutations in parC and a combination of single mutations in parC and parE significantly increased the MIC values of fluoroquinolones. In vitro induction of resistance to ciprofloxacin showed that double mutations in gyrA were a prerequisite to conferring a resistant phenotype to fluoroquinolones, and an additional mutation in the topoisomerase IV gene increased the MIC values of ciprofloxacin. In conclusion, emergence of a new mutation in parC and parE and its accumulation induces high levels of resistance to fluoroquinolones in E. coli.